Tools - All Forums - SWMM 5 or SWMM or EPASWMM and SWMM5 in ICM_SWMM2024-03-29T05:50:53Zhttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/feed/category/ToolsWhy Hyderabad is the Ideal Location for Logistics Businesseshttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/why-hyderabad-is-the-ideal-location-for-logistics-businesses2022-05-16T10:03:22.000Z2022-05-16T10:03:22.000Zjohn smithhttps://swmm2000.com/members/johnsmith<div><p>Hyderabad is one of India's most advanced and rapidly growing cities. It has a population of over 10 million people and a GDP of over $100 billion. The city has excellent infrastructure including an international airport, a well-developed motorway network, and excellent rail and port facilities. Hyderabad is also the commercial capital of Andhra Pradesh and one of the leading business hubs in India.</p><p> </p><h2>Hyderabad's strategic location</h2><p><a href="{{#staticFileLink}}10490259465,original{{/staticFileLink}}"><img class="align-full" src="{{#staticFileLink}}10490259465,RESIZE_710x{{/staticFileLink}}" width="710" alt="10490259465?profile=RESIZE_710x" /></a> </p><p>Hyderabad is the capital of Andhra Pradesh and one of the most populous cities in South India. With its well-developed infrastructure, stable political environment, and skilled workforce, Hyderabad is an ideal location for businesses involved in logistics. The city has a wide range of transportation options, including railways, roads, waterways, and airways. Additionally, Hyderabad has numerous commercial and industrial areas that are well-connected by roads and railways. Finally, the city has a large population of skilled workers who are able to provide support to businesses in the logistics sector. Truckguru has the best <a href="https://truckguru.co.in/hyderabad-to-chennai">logistics in Hyderabad</a>.</p><p> </p><h2>Proximity to major markets in Hyderabad</h2><p> </p><p>Hyderabad is a city located in southern India, and it is the capital of the state of Telangana. The city has a population of over 10 million people, and it is considered to be one of the fastest-growing cities in the world. Hyderabad is well-known for its technology industry, and many major companies have offices or headquarters there. The city also has a strong pharmaceutical industry. In addition, Hyderabad is home to several universities, including the Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad and Osmania University.</p><p> </p><h2>Robust infrastructure in Hyderabad</h2><p> <iframe title="YouTube video player" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/FyicnYoT49E" width="560" height="315" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe></p><p>Hyderabad is one of India's most prosperous and progressive cities. The city's robust infrastructure is a key factor in its success. Hyderabad's streets are well-paved and its roads are well-maintained. The city has <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/mass-transit">an extensive network of public transportation</a>, including buses, trains, and taxis. Hyderabad also has a modern airport that handles both domestic and international flights.</p><p> </p><h2>Availability of resources in Hyderabad</h2><p> </p><p>Hyderabad is the capital of the southern Indian state of Telangana and one of the largest and most populous cities in India. Due to its high population density, rapid urbanization, and growing demand for resources, Hyderabad has been experiencing an increasing scarcity of water and other resources. The city's water supply is unable to meet the current demand, resulting in water shortages and rationing. In addition, the city's limited landfill space has resulted in a growing number of uncollected solid waste. This article provides an overview of the availability of resources in Hyderabad and discusses some possible solutions to the city's resource scarcity issues.</p><p> </p><h2>Supportive business environment in Hyderabad</h2><p> <a href="{{#staticFileLink}}10490259075,original{{/staticFileLink}}"><img class="align-full" src="{{#staticFileLink}}10490259075,RESIZE_710x{{/staticFileLink}}" width="710" alt="10490259075?profile=RESIZE_710x" /></a></p><p>Hyderabad, the capital of Telangana, is one of the most developed and progressive cities in India. The city's business-friendly environment and strong infrastructure have made it a leading destination for businesses and investors. <a href="https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2022/apr/28/thermo-fisher-scientifics-world-class-rd-centre-inaugurated-in-hyderabad-2447488.html">Hyderabad's pro-business policies and world-class facilities</a> have attracted several multinational corporations (MNCs) and large Indian businesses to set up their operations here. The city's burgeoning IT sector is a major contributor to its economy, and the presence of major pharmaceutical companies has turned Hyderabad into India's healthcare hub.</p><p>It is not easy to come up with a conclusion for an article. You want to leave your reader thinking about what you have said, but you don't want to give away too much. You also want to make sure that everything you have written in your article is summed up so that the reader knows what they just read. In this article, I will talk about the different ways you can come up with a conclusion, and some tips on how to write a good one.</p><p> </p></div>What Are the Features Ideal Soccer Shoes Should Have?https://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/features-ideal-soccer-shoes2022-02-16T09:00:12.000Z2022-02-16T09:00:12.000ZA Mine of Bloghttps://swmm2000.com/members/AMineofBlog<div><p>Players in the game of soccer need to be able to move quickly and effectively in order to get the ball past their opponents. This means paying attention to their equipment, not just what they wear, but also what they use to run with. Shoes are one of the most important pieces of equipment that players should invest in, not just for protection but for agility as well.</p><p><span style="font-size:14pt;">They Should Be Durable</span> </p><p><a href="{{#staticFileLink}}10110390258,RESIZE_584x{{/staticFileLink}}"><img class="align-full" src="{{#staticFileLink}}10110390258,RESIZE_584x{{/staticFileLink}}" width="500" alt="10110390258?profile=RESIZE_584x" /></a></p><p>Soccer is a demanding sport in which the player is constantly running, jumping, tackling, and kicking. The importance of <a href="https://aapnewslive.in/2021/08/07/running-shoe-brand/">finding the right shoe</a> can't be over-emphasized when it comes to your performance on the field. A pair of shoes should be durable because you are often running or kicking with them. The shoes should also have features that promote comfort for long periods of time. They should also have good arch support because this will help prevent injury. If you're looking at buying soccer cleats, make sure they fit properly so that they don't cause pain while playing. You want to find something comfortable enough to wear all day without causing any discomfort. </p><p><span style="font-size:14pt;">The Material Should Breathe Easily</span> </p><p>Soccer cleats should be made of a material that is lightweight and allows for airflow to the foot. The <a href="https://prosoccerstore.co/product/nike-phantom-gt-2-elite-fg-rawdacious-white-bright-crimson-pink-blast/">best soccer shoes like Nike phantom GF</a> often have several individual components that not only allow for better breathability, but also give the athlete more control over the ball. This helps in preventing injuries as well as improving performance. It's important to note that some materials are better than others when it comes to keeping your feet cool during hot weather conditions. </p><p><span style="font-size:14pt;">The Soles Should Be Hard-Wearing </span></p><p>Soccer shoes are made for quick movements over the field, sprinting, and making sharp turns. High-quality soccer shoes need to have certain features to be both stylish and functional. These include: </p><p><iframe title="YouTube video player" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/EMcOz6zJ1A4" width="560" height="315" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe></p><p>A durable sole with good traction on various surfaces (grass, dirt, asphalt)</p><p>Good shock absorption properties so as to <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/sports-injuries/soccer-injuries#meniscus-tear">protect your feet from injury</a> when you make sudden stops or take rapid steps. </p><p>An upper constructed in such a way that it can withstand repeated impacts while still providing adequate.</p><p><span style="font-size:14pt;">The Shoes Should Provide Ankle Support</span> </p><p>Soccer players are always on the move, so finding shoes that can keep up is important for anyone who wants to play. Choosing shoes that are lightweight, durable, flexible, and elegant will ensure that you have the best experience possible.</p></div>gis informationhttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/gis-information2019-01-28T17:06:13.000Z2019-01-28T17:06:13.000ZLeandro Villahttps://swmm2000.com/members/LeandroVilla<div><p>I´m using inp.pins to create an inp field from shape files of nodes and links but the program just create a inp with nodes, i need to solve this problem any way, using this program or another way to do it. </p><p>I´m also have a problem because i don´t have subcatchment areas to run swmm, how can i solve it?</p><p>Then i need to link this model with a hecras model to generate a dual model betwaen river and seaage net, how can i do it?</p><p>Is there someone who can help me?</p></div>LID Control Editorhttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/lid-control-editor2018-02-21T03:44:20.000Z2018-02-21T03:44:20.000ZBenjamin Fahyhttps://swmm2000.com/members/BenjaminFahy<div><p>Hi there, </p><p>Very new SWMM user here. Interested in defining some LID Controls so I can select them for my subcatchments in the drop down menu in the editor. </p><p> </p><p>It seems I need to first define the Controls and how they are routed using the specialized property editor "LID Control Editor". Does anyone have recommendations for how to add this editor to my SWMM 5.1 interface?</p><p> </p><p>Thanks!</p><p> </p><p>-Ben</p></div>Flow on LID outputs?https://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/flow-on-lid-outputs2014-04-25T15:28:58.000Z2014-04-25T15:28:58.000ZMenna Yassinhttps://swmm2000.com/members/MennaYassin<div><p>Hello,</p><p>This might be a simple question for some of you but I am still learning the software....</p><p>I am trying to model flow on an LID surface and wanted to ask about the outputs I can get from the software and how I can get it. Is it possible to get the dq at different time intervals? can I get the elevation of water along the x and y axis of the LID surface at a specific time step? Is there a print out or output report that has these detailed information?</p><p></p><p>Thank you for your help!!!</p><p></p></div>Best modelign tool for hydrology, WQ, system capcity and flood studyhttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/best-modelign-tool-for-hydrology-wq-system-capcity-and-flood2013-10-31T18:32:40.000Z2013-10-31T18:32:40.000ZBob Blogshttps://swmm2000.com/members/BobBlogs<div><p>Hi, I am trying to chose a best model that can still applicable to model urban hydrology, water quality, systems capacity, flood study and LIDs for WQ. I understand there may not be no single tool that can do all things to same extent. But I would like to seek your suggestions what you all tool(s) you recommend for a seperate sewer system. If no one tool, then what would be the best combination of tools that I can use. I am trying to chose technical approach for an integrated watershed management plan development.</p></div>16 Reasons Why Pittsburgh Is The Greatest City On The Planet - Buzzfeedhttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/16-reasons-why-pittsburgh-is-the-greatest-city-on-the-planet-buzz2013-08-04T00:54:04.000Z2013-08-04T00:54:04.000ZRobert Dickinsonhttps://swmm2000.com/members/doonePlace<div><p></p>
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<h1 id="post-title">16 Reasons Why Pittsburgh Is The Greatest City On The Planet</h1>
<p class="description"><span>Pittsburgh was once described as Hell with the lid off.</span> Well, whoever said that was an idiot.<span class="buzz_datetime">posted on August 3, 2013 at 12:28pm EDT</span></p>
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<div class="user-info-info"><a class="user-name notranslate" href="http://www.buzzfeed.com/zoetsiris">Zoe Tsiris</a><span class="author_title"><a href="http://www.buzzfeed.com/zoetsiris">/zoetsiris</a></span></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">1.</span> Their signature sandwich has french fries on it.</h2>
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<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr02/2013/8/1/20/enhanced-buzz-30456-1375403674-17.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="300" alt="Their signature sandwich has french fries on it." /></div>
<p>That’s right. FRENCH FRIES. ON A SANDWICH.</p>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://unbreaded.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/primanti-brothers.jpg">unbreaded.com</a></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">2.</span> Pitt’s campus has the Cathedral of Learning.</h2>
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<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr01/2013/8/1/20/enhanced-buzz-9898-1375403806-19.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="415" alt="Pitt's campus has the Cathedral of Learning." /></div>
<p>And its probably the closest thing to Hogwarts you’ll ever see</p>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_m42zy1bgEj1rvitgzo1_500.jpg" class="has_icon icon_tumblr"></a></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">3.</span> Hogwarts at Christmas!</h2>
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<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr06/2013/8/1/20/enhanced-buzz-2062-1375403964-34.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="689" alt="Hogwarts at Christmas!" /></div>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://farm8.staticflickr.com/7021/6670129503_a9f29425fc_b.jpg" class="has_icon icon_flickr">farm8.staticflickr.com</a></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">4.</span> Like Bridges? You’re in Luck!</h2>
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<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr01/2013/8/1/20/enhanced-buzz-10158-1375404458-23.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="416" alt="Like Bridges? You're in Luck!" /></div>
<p>Pittsburgh is home to a record 446 bridges!</p>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://jackwagner.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/bridges.jpg">jackwagner.org</a></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">5.</span> How about movies? Recently tons have been filmed in Pittsburgh, such as <i>The Dark Knight</i>.</h2>
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<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr06/2013/8/1/20/enhanced-buzz-21182-1375404793-6.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="625" alt="How about movies? Recently tons have been filmed in Pittsburgh, such as The Dark Knight ." /></div>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0199/5932/products/newgotham_large.jpg">cdn.shopify.com</a>  /  via: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.buzzfeed.com/zoetsiris/Steel%20City%20Cotton%20Works">Steel City Cotton Works</a></div>
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<h2><i>Jack Reacher</i></h2>
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<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr01/2013/8/1/20/enhanced-buzz-9098-1375404936-10.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="416" alt="Jack Reacher" /></div>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://extras.mnginteractive.com/live/media/site569/2012/1217/20121217__121221m-Jack%20Reacher.jpg">extras.mnginteractive.com</a></div>
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<h2>And <i>The Perks of Being a Wallflower</i>.</h2>
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<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr01/2013/8/1/20/enhanced-buzz-9794-1375404988-16.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="352" alt="And The Perks of Being a Wallflower ." /></div>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pittsburghmagazine.com/Pittsburgh-Magazine/October-2012/The-Perks-of-Being-a-Pittsburgher/perks.jpg">pittsburghmagazine.com</a></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">6.</span> We have our own lingo.</h2>
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<p>And yinz guys better not be jagoffs about it.</p>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://24.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_lu3kymygVJ1r1ghkko1_500.jpg" class="has_icon icon_tumblr"></a></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">7.</span> Did I mention the sports teams?</h2>
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<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr05/2013/8/3/11/enhanced-buzz-3720-1375545292-6.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="377" alt="Did I mention the sports teams?" /></div>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://content.clearchannel.com/cc-common/mlib/2094/12/2094_1356969506.jpg">content.clearchannel.com</a></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">8.</span> The Steelers have the most super bowl wins of any NFL team.</h2>
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<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr05/2013/8/3/11/enhanced-buzz-3187-1375545409-8.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="706" alt="The Steelers have the most super bowl wins of any NFL team." /></div>
<p>We got one for the thumb AND one for the other hand.</p>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://myweb.bloomu.edu/jtg66821/Images/steelers-super-bowl-rings.jpg">myweb.bloomu.edu</a></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">9.</span> The Penguins aren’t too shabby either.. And we’ve got Sid the Kid!</h2>
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<p>Even if he gets injured about every five seconds.</p>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3662/3621671864_a78a2dfd35.jpg" class="has_icon icon_flickr">farm4.static.flickr.com</a></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">10.</span> And the Pirates… Well they have a cool logo!</h2>
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<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr02/2013/8/3/12/enhanced-buzz-1011-1375545658-8.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="469" alt="And the Pirates... Well they have a cool logo!" /></div>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.palive365.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Pittsburgh_Pirates3.jpg">palive365.com</a></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">11.</span> There’s a neighborhood named Squirrel Hill.</h2>
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<p>They even made a movie about a girl from there entering a beauty pageant - You’re going down Sewickley!!</p>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.officialmarissajaretwinokur.com/Resources/videopagebg.jpeg">officialmarissajaretwinokur.com</a></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">12.</span> Speaking of Neighborhoods, they are serious business.</h2>
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<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr02/2013/8/3/12/enhanced-buzz-1029-1375546013-10.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="443" alt="Speaking of Neighborhoods, they are serious business." /></div>
<p>SOUTH OAKLAND ALL DAY SON!</p>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.studentaffairs.cmu.edu/studentactivities/pghconnections/images/map.jpg">studentaffairs.cmu.edu</a></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">13.</span> But they’re all pretty great…</h2>
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<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pittsburghmagazine.com/Pittsburgh-Magazine/City-Guide/Neighborhoods/City-of-Neighborhoods-header-Revised-99.jpg">pittsburghmagazine.com</a></div>
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<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">14.</span> Cost of Living is low, so go ahead—buy a house and settle in!</h2>
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<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr06/2013/8/3/12/enhanced-buzz-32542-1375546282-9.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="469" alt="Cost of Living is low, so go ahead—buy a house and settle in!" /></div>
<p>This beaut is just $115,900 for 3 bedrooms and 1.5 baths. Where do I sign?</p>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://photos3.zillow.com/p_f/ISxjxmq8fx4zo61000000000.jpg">photos3.zillow.com</a></div>
</div>
<div class="buzz_superlist_item buzz_superlist_item_image buzz_superlist_item_wide" id="superlist_2486299_1461479">
<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">15.</span> Andrew Zimmern had this to say about Pittsburgh.</h2>
<div class="sub_buzz_content">
<div class="share-box"></div>
<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr03/2013/8/3/12/enhanced-buzz-24206-1375546965-10.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="578" alt="Andrew Zimmern had this to say about Pittsburgh." /></div>
<p>And he has possibly eaten in every city in the world.</p>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://blog.cochran.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Andrew-Zimmern-Pittsburgh.png">blog.cochran.com</a></div>
</div>
<div class="buzz_superlist_item buzz_superlist_item_image buzz_superlist_item_wide" id="superlist_2486299_1461482">
<h2><span class="buzz_superlist_number_inline">16.</span> And if that isn’t enough to convince you, just look at that gorgeous skyline.</h2>
<div class="sub_buzz_content">
<div class="share-box"></div>
<img src="http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/webdr06/2013/8/3/12/enhanced-buzz-31978-1375547091-8.jpg" class="bf_dom" width="625" height="406" alt="And if that isn't enough to convince you, just look at that gorgeous skyline." /></div>
<div class="sub_buzz_source_via buzz_attribution">Source: <a rel="nofollow" href="http://media-cache-ec0.pinimg.com/736x/7d/c3/3b/7dc33bce6603f72c0ffd1290db5e6704.jpg">media-cache-ec0.pinimg.com</a></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>NASA - Perpetual Oceanhttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/nasa-perpetual-ocean2012-03-28T10:23:13.000Z2012-03-28T10:23:13.000ZRobert Dickinsonhttps://swmm2000.com/members/doonePlace<div><h1>Perpetual Ocean</h1>
<div class="meta-bar">March 27, 2012 to <a href="http://flowingdata.com/category/visualization/mapping/" title="View all posts in Mapping" rel="category tag">Mapping</a>  •  <a href="http://flowingdata.com/2012/03/27/perpetual-ocean/#comments">Add Comment</a>  •  <a href="http://twitter.com/share?url=http%3A%2F%2Fflowingdata.com%2F2012%2F03%2F27%2Fperpetual-ocean%2F&via=flowingdata&text=Perpetual+Ocean" rel="nofollow">Share on Twitter</a></div>
<div class="entry-content">
<p><object width="625" height="352" classid="clsid:d27cdb6e-ae6d-11cf-96b8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=6,0,40,0"><param name="src" value="http://www.flickr.com/apps/video/stewart.swf?v=109786" ></param>
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<param name="flashvars" value="intl_lang=en-us&photo_secret=b4d5c22cb3&photo_id=7009056027&hd_default=false" ></param>
<embed wmode="opaque" width="625" height="352" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" src="http://www.flickr.com/apps/video/stewart.swf?v=109786" allowfullscreen="false" flashvars="intl_lang=en-us&photo_secret=b4d5c22cb3&photo_id=7009056027&hd_default=false" bgcolor="#000000" allowscriptaccess="never"></embed> <param name="allowscriptaccess" value="never" ></param>
<param name="wmode" value="opaque" ></param></object></p>
<p>Using a computational model called Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean, Phase II (ECCO2), the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio (I think NASA has a thing for long names.) <a href="http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a003800/a003827/">visualizes surface currents around the world</a>. This is beautiful science here. Make sure you turn on high-def and go full screen.</p>
<p><small>[via @<a href="https://twitter.com/aaronkoblin/status/184371426667663360">aaronkoblin</a>]</small></p>
</div>
</div>100 Incredible Views Out Of Airplane Windows - From Buzzfeedhttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/100-incredible-views-out-of-airplane-windows-from-buzzfeed2011-12-05T02:27:12.000Z2011-12-05T02:27:12.000ZRobert Dickinsonhttps://swmm2000.com/members/doonePlace<div><p></p>
<div class="info info-no-thumb">
<h1>100 Incredible Views Out Of Airplane Windows</h1>
<p class="description"><a class="category" href="http://www.buzzfeed.com/category/Culture">CULTURE BUZZ</a> <span><b>Inspired by <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/daily-dish/archive/2011/03/the-view-from-your-airplane-window/173613/">Andrew Sullivan’s</a> airplane window picture series, here's a very large collection of awesome pictures taken out of airplane windows.</b> I need to go on a vacation. <a href="http://www.buzzfeed.com/mjs538/100-incredible-views-out-of-airplane-windows">http://www.buzzfeed.com/mjs538/100-incredible-views-out-of-airplane-windows</a></span></p>
</div>
<ul class="top-list" id="top-list">
<li class="bf_dom num1">
<h3><span class="num">1.</span> London, England</h3>
<img src="http://s-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/15/enhanced-buzz-10558-1302206139-32.jpg" width="516" height="775" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/trexcali/2140847647/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">2.</span> Mount Everest and Makalu, Nepal</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/15/enhanced-buzz-10549-1302206249-29.jpg" width="600" height="450" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/zhollandsworth/92212466/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">3.</span> Cargill Salt Ponds in San Francisco Bay</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10567-1302206476-28.jpg" width="600" height="449" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/kevinkemmerer/2608471547/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">4.</span> Skagway, Alaska</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10572-1302206519-32.jpg" width="600" height="441" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/peter2222/766737259/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">5.</span> The Alps</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10555-1302206633-33.jpg" width="600" height="496" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/ranopamas/2197741685/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">6.</span> Sokongen Island, Greenland</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10558-1302206853-33.jpg" width="600" height="397" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/ascendent/375334645/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">7.</span> Midwest, USA</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10543-1302206975-38.jpg" width="600" height="605" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/lefeber/1636649234/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">8.</span> Lagos, Nigeria</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10553-1302207159-22.jpg" width="600" height="454" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/alfgillman/329062128/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">9.</span> Mount Ranier, Washington</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10550-1302207185-20.jpg" width="600" height="398" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/benjy/1125518808/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">10.</span> Madison, Wisconsin</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10552-1302207226-32.jpg" width="600" height="400" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/alumroot/102435662/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">11.</span> New York, New York</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10553-1302207259-23.jpg" width="600" height="387" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/redfishid/3139131237/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">12.</span> Midwest, USA</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10543-1302207368-40.jpg" width="600" height="605" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/sgoralnick/4910919814/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">13.</span> Greenland</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10567-1302207400-29.jpg" width="600" height="401" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/globetrodden/3890757613/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">14.</span> Mount Pico, Portugal</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10550-1302207442-21.jpg" width="600" height="464" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/23206499@N03/4702635383/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">15.</span> Mount St. Helen, Washington</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10551-1302207515-26.jpg" width="600" height="394" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/weave/179962176/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">16.</span> St. Elias Icefields, Greenland</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10560-1302207619-34.jpg" width="600" height="329" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/dcartiersr/2748050713/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">17.</span> Cairo, Egypt</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10551-1302207695-27.jpg" width="600" height="451" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/lifes__too_short__to__drink__cheap__wine/3026867562/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">18.</span> San Luis Obispo County, California</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10553-1302207829-26.jpg" width="600" height="345" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/vision_aerie/2317570769/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">19.</span> Fuel depot explosion in 2006. London, England.</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10557-1302208485-41.jpg" width="578" height="776" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/silyld/72382630/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">20.</span> Southern Wisconsin</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10551-1302208604-33.jpg" width="600" height="399" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/kawkawpa/385180704/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">21.</span> Austria sunrise</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10552-1302208745-38.jpg" width="600" height="447" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/renaldo_tr/4322466125/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">22.</span> Selangor River, Malaysia</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10553-1302208781-30.jpg" width="600" height="400" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/wak1/637762891/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">23.</span> Grand Canyon, Arizona</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10548-1302208817-44.jpg" width="518" height="777" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/milwaukeemark/4138298529/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">24.</span> Great Salt Lake, Utah</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10567-1302208861-38.jpg" width="600" height="321" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/tkellyphoto/2933793004/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">25.</span> Talbot Bay, Australia</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10558-1302208918-41.jpg" width="600" height="372" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/philings/5225269877/in/photostream/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">26.</span> Oahu, Hawaii</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10570-1302208995-44.jpg" width="600" height="450" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/roddh/66064745/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">27.</span> Great Plains, USA</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10557-1302209059-44.jpg" width="600" height="604" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/sgoralnick/4623059595/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">28.</span> Bali, Indonesia</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10573-1302209167-46.jpg" width="600" height="399" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/ndoetz/2856067292/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">29.</span> Nebraska, USA</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10550-1302209209-27.jpg" width="600" height="398" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/kawkawpa/370265708/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">30.</span> Los Angeles, California</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10558-1302209332-42.jpg" width="600" height="428" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/yoyo_hick/2415244958/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">31.</span> Lima, Peru</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10552-1302209456-40.jpg" width="600" height="446" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/julia_manzerova/2758164487/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">32.</span> Koh Samui, Thailand</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10554-1302209512-45.jpg" width="600" height="401" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/sgoralnick/4503347422/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">33.</span> San Francisco Bay, USA</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10570-1302209645-45.jpg" width="600" height="401" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/lecates/2590783337/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">34.</span> Shanghai, China</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10571-1302209659-42.jpg" width="600" height="449" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/lozinho/446315465/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">35.</span> Queenstown, New Zealand</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10560-1302209749-42.jpg" width="600" height="449" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/kiwinz/3183768618/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">36.</span> Mount Fuji, Japan</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10556-1302209854-41.jpg" width="600" height="449" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/lynt/3046042172/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">37.</span> San Francisco, California</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/16/enhanced-buzz-10548-1302209939-46.jpg" width="600" height="403" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/26561580@N06/2952730704/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">38.</span> Cuyama Valley, California</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10553-1302210151-31.jpg" width="600" height="343" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/jw4pix/4456650940/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">39.</span> Cape Verde, Africa</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10572-1302210238-41.jpg" width="600" height="446" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/lozinho/437324950/in/pool-windowseatplease#/photos/lozinho/437324950/in/pool-34236781@N00/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">40.</span> Phucket, Thailand</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10573-1302210415-48.jpg" width="519" height="771" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/giacomo/4859537647/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">41.</span> Alberta, Canada</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10568-1302210480-38.jpg" width="600" height="449" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/markselliott/41923519/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">42.</span> Yenesei River, Russia</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10570-1302210539-47.jpg" width="600" height="399" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/lozinho/540531569/in/pool-windowseatplease#/photos/lozinho/540531569/in/pool-34236781@N00/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">43.</span> Outside Paris, France</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10557-1302210574-46.jpg" width="600" height="358" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/lozinho/2469003543/in/pool-flying#/photos/lozinho/2469003543/in/pool-52242423638@N01/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">44.</span> Casabermeja, Spain</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10543-1302210622-50.jpg" width="600" height="397" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/two-eyes/5125215377/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">45.</span> The Bavarian Countryside, Germany</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10560-1302210716-44.jpg" width="515" height="776" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/one_schism/4693440462/in/photostream/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">46.</span> Atkinson, Nebraska</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10569-1302210758-36.jpg" width="600" height="399" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/kawkawpa/397275454/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">47.</span> Mauritius</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10573-1302210887-50.jpg" width="600" height="448" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/15545136@N06/1808248781/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">48.</span> Hong Kong, China</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10551-1302210961-35.jpg" width="600" height="332" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/winnie_quan/2968431315/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">49.</span> Outside Narita, Japan</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10558-1302211005-44.jpg" width="514" height="780" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/giantginkgo/157147069/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">50.</span> Lake Nasser, Egypt</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10552-1302211057-43.jpg" width="600" height="447" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/klvinci/3236663139/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">51.</span> Derby, Washington</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10569-1302211137-37.jpg" width="600" height="380" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/philings/5225942996/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">52.</span> Austria</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10567-1302211313-42.jpg" width="575" height="778" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/matt_hintsa/947080243/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">53.</span> Wisconsin, USA</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10567-1302211415-43.jpg" width="600" height="374" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/sarunas_b/5572901670/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">54.</span> East of Madrid, Spain</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10554-1302211592-48.jpg" width="600" height="457" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/criminalintent/220185657/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">55.</span> Outside of Paris, France</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10543-1302211775-52.jpg" width="600" height="454" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/robert_saucier/5489841074/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">56.</span> Cascais, Portugal</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10560-1302211821-45.jpg" width="600" height="398" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/31415461@N05/5059784048/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">57.</span> Bombay, India</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10555-1302211993-45.jpg" width="600" height="392" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/19787482@N04/5019358096/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">58.</span> Montana, USA</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10556-1302212250-43.jpg" width="600" height="452" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/marmotfotos/830472316/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">59.</span> Pyramid Lake, Nevada</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10549-1302212258-38.jpg" width="600" height="397" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/emb/2078361659/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">60.</span> Utah, USA</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10556-1302212465-45.jpg" width="600" height="452" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/96683394@N00/4034773330/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">61.</span> Table Mountain, South Africa</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10558-1302212542-47.jpg" width="600" height="406" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/globetrodden/4104640258/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">62.</span> Luanda, Angola</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10567-1302212681-44.jpg" width="600" height="398" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/84269782@N00/5273566515/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">63.</span> Crater Lake, Tanzania</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10570-1302212816-49.jpg" width="600" height="400" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/jdkvirus/3177321424/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">64.</span> Marrakech, Morocco</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10555-1302212874-47.jpg" width="600" height="400" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/twocrabs/133659831/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">65.</span> Marsa el Brega, Libya</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10569-1302213079-41.jpg" width="600" height="379" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/87913776@N00/5477246007/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">66.</span> Cape Town, South Africa</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10569-1302213146-42.jpg" width="600" height="400" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/37423935@N00/498641014/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">67.</span> Lencois Maranhenses, Brazil</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10567-1302213256-47.jpg" width="600" height="451" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/camarim/3749491626/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">68.</span> Rio de Janeiro, Brazil</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/17/enhanced-buzz-10550-1302213348-30.jpg" width="600" height="448" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/simonecarrocino/207194378/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">69.</span> Singapore</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/21/enhanced-buzz-17626-1302225550-2.jpg" width="600" height="449" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/alfgillman/5518738735/in/pool-34236781@N00/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">70.</span> Near Anchorage, Alaska</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/21/enhanced-buzz-17630-1302225757-2.jpg" width="600" height="484" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/flaneur/2936654800/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">71.</span> Okushiri, Japan</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/21/enhanced-buzz-17632-1302225951-0.jpg" width="422" height="635" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/hyougushi/117111962/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">72.</span> Downtown Doha, Qatar</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/21/enhanced-buzz-17618-1302226429-1.jpg" width="600" height="337" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/elmarbajora/5122771659/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">73.</span> Tehran, Iran</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/21/enhanced-buzz-17623-1302226595-0.jpg" width="600" height="361" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/sina-r/4156246186/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">74.</span> Lake Baikal, Siberia</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/21/enhanced-buzz-17631-1302226721-3.jpg" width="600" height="401" />
<p></p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">75.</span> Hong Kong, China</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/21/enhanced-buzz-17619-1302227953-3.jpg" width="600" height="449" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/sugarwawa/5320383522/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">76.</span> Somewhere between Salt Lake and Paris</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/22/enhanced-buzz-19695-1302229661-0.jpg" width="600" height="402" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/c_dubs/4250239757/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">77.</span> El Alto, Bolivia</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/22/enhanced-buzz-19706-1302230802-0.jpg" width="422" height="638" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/c_dubs/4250239757/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">78.</span> Outskirts of Lima, Peru</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/22/enhanced-buzz-19710-1302230892-0.jpg" width="600" height="461" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/31385447@N07/4216666855/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">79.</span> Ushuaia, Argentina</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/22/enhanced-buzz-19687-1302230947-0.jpg" width="600" height="397" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/elliz/2179868027/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">80.</span> Guyana</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/22/enhanced-buzz-19699-1302231037-1.jpg" width="422" height="635" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/eliciaire/3561069581/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">81.</span> Atacama, Chile</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/7/22/enhanced-buzz-19709-1302231169-1.jpg" width="600" height="450" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/eye-fibre/2434952852/in/photostream/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">82.</span> Tierra del Fuego, Argentina</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/7/enhanced-buzz-25368-1302261531-0.jpg" width="422" height="637" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/swq/82901686/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">83.</span> The Amazon</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/7/enhanced-buzz-25371-1302261641-0.jpg" width="600" height="449" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/markselliott/214762991/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">84.</span> Mexico City</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/7/enhanced-buzz-25375-1302261768-0.jpg" width="600" height="399" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/khowaga/2857971668/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">85.</span> Chicago, Illinois</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/7/enhanced-buzz-25381-1302262126-0.jpg" width="600" height="480" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/kpat/4283856762/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">86.</span> Blue Mountains, Australia</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/7/enhanced-buzz-25364-1302262198-0.jpg" width="421" height="632" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/jase010/4740801544/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">87.</span> Abu Dhabi, UAE</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/7/enhanced-buzz-25368-1302262359-1.jpg" width="600" height="338" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/elmarbajora/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">88.</span> Dahan-e Darreh Chasht, Afghanistan</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/7/enhanced-buzz-25372-1302262528-0.jpg" width="600" height="446" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/joerg1975/1348134600/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">89.</span> Palawan, Philippines</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/7/enhanced-buzz-25377-1302262740-0.jpg" width="600" height="453" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/neumeyer/2320762021/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">90.</span> Mt McLoughlin, Oregon</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/7/enhanced-buzz-25357-1302263032-0.jpg" width="600" height="600" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/roguemd/4400670088/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">91.</span> Colorado, USA</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/7/enhanced-buzz-25368-1302263558-2.jpg" width="600" height="450" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/23782932@N06/4884578210/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">92.</span> Mount Bogeda, China</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/7/enhanced-buzz-25373-1302263747-0.jpg" width="473" height="627" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/rosemania/146818692/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">93.</span> Chara, Siberia</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/7/enhanced-buzz-25376-1302263865-1.jpg" width="600" height="446" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/alfgillman/314709514/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">94.</span> Curonian Split (shared between Lithuania and Russia)</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/7/enhanced-buzz-25380-1302263936-1.jpg" width="483" height="626" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/49746981@N00/1342712098/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">95.</span> Kronotsky volcano, Kamchatka.</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/8/enhanced-buzz-25363-1302264090-1.jpg" width="600" height="450" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/thomaswinkler/2346439995/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">96.</span> Panama</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/8/enhanced-buzz-25367-1302264180-4.jpg" width="600" height="422" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/digitalczech/789919424/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">97.</span> Northeast coast of Sicily</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/8/enhanced-buzz-25372-1302264254-2.jpg" width="422" height="631" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/afewscoops/1467143719/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">98.</span> Western Sudan</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/8/enhanced-buzz-25377-1302264395-1.jpg" width="600" height="448" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/alfgillman/299417196/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">99.</span> Winslow, Arizona</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/8/enhanced-buzz-25369-1302264572-0.jpg" width="600" height="452" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/78792726@N00/2415342122/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
<li class="bf_dom">
<h3><span class="num">100.</span> Izalco, San Salvador</h3>
<img class="bf_dom" src="http://s3-ak.buzzfed.com/static/enhanced/terminal01/2011/4/8/8/enhanced-buzz-25365-1302264435-0.jpg" width="600" height="430" />
<p><a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/96271493@N00/1094253590/">Source</a>.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p></p>
</div>Calibration Conceptshttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/calibration-concepts2010-12-11T20:39:17.000Z2010-12-11T20:39:17.000ZRobert Dickinsonhttps://swmm2000.com/members/doonePlace<div><p>From the blog <a href="http://www.easterbrook.ca/steve/">Serendipity</a> as useful discussion on calibration</p>
<p> </p>
<p>..ask what is the purpose of a climate model. The second half of the George Box quote is “…but some models are useful”. Climate models are tools that allow scientists to explore their current understanding of climate processes, to build and test theories, and to explore the consequences of those theories. In other words we’re dealing with three distinct systems:</p>
<div id="attachment_2041" class="wp-caption alignnone"><a href="http://www.easterbrook.ca/steve/wp-content/3systems.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-2041" title="3systems" src="http://www.easterbrook.ca/steve/wp-content/3systems.jpg" alt="" width="550" height="103" /></a>
<p class="wp-caption-text">We're dealing with relationships between three different systems</p>
</div>
<p>There does not need to be any clear relationship between the calculational system and the observational system – I didn’t include such a relationship in my diagram. For example, climate models can be run in configurations that don’t match the real world at all: e.g. a waterworld with no landmasses, or a world in which interesting things are varied: the tilt of the pole, the composition of the atmosphere, etc. These models are useful, and the experiments performed with them may be perfectly valid, even though they differ deliberately from the observational system.</p>
<p>What really matters is the <em>relationship</em> between the <em>theoretical system</em> and the <em>observational system</em>: in other words, how well does our current understanding (i.e. our theories) of climate explain the available observations (and of course the inverse: what additional observations might we make to help test our theories). When we ask questions about likely future climate changes, we’re not asking this question of the the calculational system, we’re asking it of the theoretical system; the models are just a convenient way of probing the theory to provide answers.</p>
<p>By the way, when I use the term theory, I mean it in exactly the way it’s used in throughout all sciences: <a title="McComas W. The principal elements of the nature of science: Dispelling the myths. In: The nature of science in science education. Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1998:53-€“70." href="http://coehp.uark.edu/pase/TheMythsOfScience.pdf" target="_blank">a theory is the best current explanation of a given set of phenomena</a>. The word “theory” doesn’t mean knowledge that is somehow more tentative than other forms of knowledge; a theory is actually the kind of knowledge that has the strongest epistemological basis of any kind of knowledge, because it is supported by the available evidence, and best explains that evidence. A theory might not be capable of providing quantitative predictions (but it’s good when it does), but it must have explanatory power.</p>
<p> </p>
<p>More Here:  <a href="http://www.easterbrook.ca/steve/?p=2032&cpage=1#comment-4945">http://www.easterbrook.ca/steve/?p=2032&cpage=1#comment-4945</a></p>
<p> </p>
<p>I redid the above graphic in Powerpoint <a href="http://api.ning.com/files/rzY1YtgTMGxeJmChsm9prlP3KUKUbi9GvVa-FIW9KnUaK8BvmY9h*Q2s01yEXZYEJS95xScFiiWTQQZOFYesPquAngRZe5l2/three_systems_for_calibration.png" target="_blank"><img width="750" class="align-full" src="http://api.ning.com/files/rzY1YtgTMGxeJmChsm9prlP3KUKUbi9GvVa-FIW9KnUaK8BvmY9h*Q2s01yEXZYEJS95xScFiiWTQQZOFYesPquAngRZe5l2/three_systems_for_calibration.png?width=750" alt="" width="750" /></a></p>
<p>In terms of SWMM 5 and other models let me paraphrase the above:</p>
<div id="attachment_2041" class="wp-caption alignnone">
<p class="wp-caption-text">We're dealing with relationships between three different systems</p>
</div>
<p>There does not need to be any clear relationship between the <em>calculational system</em> and the <em>observational system</em> – I didn’t include such a relationship in my diagram. For example, hydrology/hydraulic models can be run in configurations that don’t match the real world at all: e.g. a watershed without detail or simple assumptions, or a watershed in which interesting things are varied: the modeling detail for catchment complexity, slope, overland path length, impervious connections, soil and infiltration detail and methodology.  You can also leave out important components such as ground water and water quality.  These models are useful, and the experiments performed with them may be perfectly valid, even though they differ deliberately from the observational system.</p>
<p>What really matters is the <em>relationship</em> between the <em>theoretical system</em> and the <em>observational system</em>: in other words, how well does our current understanding (i.e. our theories) of hydrology/hydraulics explain the available observations (and of course the inverse: what additional observations might we make to help test our theories). When we ask questions about likely future watershed changes, we’re not asking this question of the the calculational system, we’re asking it of the theoretical system; the models are just a convenient way of probing the theory to provide answers.</p>
<p> </p>
</div>World Population over Timehttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/world-population-over-time2008-12-28T15:23:01.000Z2008-12-28T15:23:01.000ZRobert Dickinsonhttps://swmm2000.com/members/doonePlace<div><div id="container">
<h2 id="int_page_header">Historical Estimates of World Population</h2>
<p>(Population in millions. When lower and upper estimates are the same they are shown under "Lower.")</p>
<p></p>
<table border="1" cellspacing="-2" width="80%" summary="Historical Estimates of World Population" class="borderedtable">
<thead>
<tr align="center" valign="bottom">
<th id="col01" rowspan="2" width="9%">Year</th>
<th id="h1" colspan="2" width="7%">Summary</th>
<th id="col04" rowspan="2" width="7%">Biraben</th>
<th id="h2" colspan="2" width="7%">Durand</th>
<th id="col07" rowspan="2" width="7%">Haub</th>
<th id="col08" rowspan="2" width="7%">McEvedy<br />
and Jones</th>
<th id="h3" colspan="2" width="7%">Thomlinson</th>
<th id="h4" colspan="2" width="7%">UN, 1973</th>
<th id="col13" rowspan="2" width="7%">UN, 1999</th>
<th id="col14" rowspan="2" width="7%">USCB</th>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom">
<th id="col02" width="7%">Lower</th>
<th id="col03" width="7%">Upper</th>
<th id="col05" width="7%">Lower</th>
<th id="col06" width="7%">Upper</th>
<th id="col09" width="7%">Lower</th>
<th id="col10" width="7%">Upper</th>
<th id="col11" width="7%">Lower</th>
<th id="col12" width="7%">Upper</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row01">
<td headers="row01 col01">10000 BC</td>
<td headers="row01 h1 col02">1</td>
<td headers="row01 h1 col03">10</td>
<td headers="row01 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row01 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row01 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row01 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row01 col08">4</td>
<td headers="row01 h3 col09">1</td>
<td headers="row01 h3 col10">10</td>
<td headers="row01 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row01 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row01 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row01 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row02">
<td headers="row02 col01">8000 BC</td>
<td headers="row02 h1 col02">5</td>
<td headers="row02 h1 col03"> </td>
<td headers="row02 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row02 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row02 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row02 col07">5</td>
<td headers="row02 col08"> </td>
<td headers="row02 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row02 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row02 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row02 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row02 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row02 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row03">
<td headers="row03 col01">6500 BC</td>
<td headers="row03 h1 col02">5</td>
<td headers="row03 h1 col03">10</td>
<td headers="row03 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row03 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row03 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row03 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row03 col08"> </td>
<td headers="row03 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row03 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row03 h4 col11">5</td>
<td headers="row03 h4 col12">10</td>
<td headers="row03 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row03 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row04">
<td headers="row04 col01">5000 BC</td>
<td headers="row04 h1 col02">5</td>
<td headers="row04 h1 col03">20</td>
<td headers="row04 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row04 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row04 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row04 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row04 col08">5</td>
<td headers="row04 h3 col09">5</td>
<td headers="row04 h3 col10">20</td>
<td headers="row04 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row04 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row04 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row04 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row05">
<td headers="row05 col01">4000 BC</td>
<td headers="row05 h1 col02">7</td>
<td headers="row05 h1 col03"> </td>
<td headers="row05 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row05 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row05 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row05 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row05 col08">7</td>
<td headers="row05 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row05 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row05 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row05 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row05 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row05 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row06">
<td headers="row06 col01">3000 BC</td>
<td headers="row06 h1 col02">14</td>
<td headers="row06 h1 col03"> </td>
<td headers="row06 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row06 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row06 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row06 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row06 col08">14</td>
<td headers="row06 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row06 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row06 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row06 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row06 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row06 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row07">
<td headers="row07 col01">2000 BC</td>
<td headers="row07 h1 col02">27</td>
<td headers="row07 h1 col03"> </td>
<td headers="row07 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row07 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row07 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row07 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row07 col08">27</td>
<td headers="row07 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row07 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row07 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row07 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row07 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row07 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row08">
<td headers="row08 col01">1000 BC</td>
<td headers="row08 h1 col02">50</td>
<td headers="row08 h1 col03"> </td>
<td headers="row08 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row08 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row08 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row08 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row08 col08">50</td>
<td headers="row08 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row08 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row08 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row08 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row08 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row08 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row09">
<td headers="row09 col01">500 BC</td>
<td headers="row09 h1 col02">100</td>
<td headers="row09 h1 col03"> </td>
<td headers="row09 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row09 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row09 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row09 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row09 col08">100</td>
<td headers="row09 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row09 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row09 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row09 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row09 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row09 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row10">
<td headers="row10 col01">400 BC</td>
<td headers="row10 h1 col02">162</td>
<td headers="row10 h1 col03"> </td>
<td headers="row10 col04">162</td>
<td headers="row10 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row10 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row10 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row10 col08"> </td>
<td headers="row10 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row10 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row10 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row10 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row10 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row10 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row11">
<td headers="row11 col01">200 BC</td>
<td headers="row11 h1 col02">150</td>
<td headers="row11 h1 col03">231</td>
<td headers="row11 col04">231</td>
<td headers="row11 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row11 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row11 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row11 col08">150</td>
<td headers="row11 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row11 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row11 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row11 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row11 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row11 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row12">
<td headers="row12 col01">1 AD</td>
<td headers="row12 h1 col02">170</td>
<td headers="row12 h1 col03">400</td>
<td headers="row12 col04">255</td>
<td headers="row12 h2 col05">270</td>
<td headers="row12 h2 col06">330</td>
<td headers="row12 col07">300</td>
<td headers="row12 col08">170</td>
<td headers="row12 h3 col09">200</td>
<td headers="row12 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row12 h4 col11">200</td>
<td headers="row12 h4 col12">400</td>
<td headers="row12 col13">300</td>
<td headers="row12 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row13">
<td headers="row13 col01">200 AD</td>
<td headers="row13 h1 col02">190</td>
<td headers="row13 h1 col03">256</td>
<td headers="row13 col04">256</td>
<td headers="row13 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row13 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row13 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row13 col08">190</td>
<td headers="row13 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row13 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row13 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row13 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row13 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row13 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row14">
<td headers="row14 col01">400 AD</td>
<td headers="row14 h1 col02">190</td>
<td headers="row14 h1 col03">206</td>
<td headers="row14 col04">206</td>
<td headers="row14 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row14 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row14 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row14 col08">190</td>
<td headers="row14 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row14 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row14 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row14 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row14 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row14 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row15">
<td headers="row15 col01">500 AD</td>
<td headers="row15 h1 col02">190</td>
<td headers="row15 h1 col03">206</td>
<td headers="row15 col04">206</td>
<td headers="row15 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row15 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row15 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row15 col08">190</td>
<td headers="row15 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row15 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row15 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row15 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row15 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row15 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row16">
<td headers="row16 col01">600 AD</td>
<td headers="row16 h1 col02">200</td>
<td headers="row16 h1 col03">206</td>
<td headers="row16 col04">206</td>
<td headers="row16 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row16 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row16 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row16 col08">200</td>
<td headers="row16 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row16 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row16 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row16 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row16 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row16 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row17">
<td headers="row17 col01">700 AD</td>
<td headers="row17 h1 col02">207</td>
<td headers="row17 h1 col03">210</td>
<td headers="row17 col04">207</td>
<td headers="row17 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row17 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row17 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row17 col08">210</td>
<td headers="row17 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row17 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row17 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row17 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row17 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row17 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row18">
<td headers="row18 col01">800 AD</td>
<td headers="row18 h1 col02">220</td>
<td headers="row18 h1 col03">224</td>
<td headers="row18 col04">224</td>
<td headers="row18 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row18 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row18 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row18 col08">220</td>
<td headers="row18 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row18 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row18 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row18 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row18 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row18 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row19">
<td headers="row19 col01">900 AD</td>
<td headers="row19 h1 col02">226</td>
<td headers="row19 h1 col03">240</td>
<td headers="row19 col04">226</td>
<td headers="row19 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row19 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row19 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row19 col08">240</td>
<td headers="row19 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row19 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row19 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row19 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row19 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row19 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row20">
<td headers="row20 col01">1000 AD</td>
<td headers="row20 h1 col02">254</td>
<td headers="row20 h1 col03">345</td>
<td headers="row20 col04">254</td>
<td headers="row20 h2 col05">275</td>
<td headers="row20 h2 col06">345</td>
<td headers="row20 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row20 col08">265</td>
<td headers="row20 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row20 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row20 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row20 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row20 col13">310</td>
<td headers="row20 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row21">
<td headers="row21 col01">1100 AD</td>
<td headers="row21 h1 col02">301</td>
<td headers="row21 h1 col03">320</td>
<td headers="row21 col04">301</td>
<td headers="row21 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row21 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row21 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row21 col08">320</td>
<td headers="row21 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row21 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row21 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row21 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row21 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row21 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row22">
<td headers="row22 col01">1200 AD</td>
<td headers="row22 h1 col02">360</td>
<td headers="row22 h1 col03">450</td>
<td headers="row22 col04">400</td>
<td headers="row22 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row22 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row22 col07">450</td>
<td headers="row22 col08">360</td>
<td headers="row22 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row22 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row22 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row22 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row22 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row22 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row23">
<td headers="row23 col01">1250 AD</td>
<td headers="row23 h1 col02">400</td>
<td headers="row23 h1 col03">416</td>
<td headers="row23 col04">416</td>
<td headers="row23 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row23 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row23 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row23 col08"> </td>
<td headers="row23 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row23 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row23 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row23 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row23 col13">400</td>
<td headers="row23 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row24">
<td headers="row24 col01">1300 AD</td>
<td headers="row24 h1 col02">360</td>
<td headers="row24 h1 col03">432</td>
<td headers="row24 col04">432</td>
<td headers="row24 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row24 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row24 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row24 col08">360</td>
<td headers="row24 h3 col09">400</td>
<td headers="row24 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row24 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row24 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row24 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row24 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row25">
<td headers="row25 col01">1340 AD</td>
<td headers="row25 h1 col02">443</td>
<td headers="row25 h1 col03"> </td>
<td headers="row25 col04">443</td>
<td headers="row25 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row25 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row25 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row25 col08"> </td>
<td headers="row25 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row25 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row25 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row25 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row25 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row25 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row26">
<td headers="row26 col01">1400 AD</td>
<td headers="row26 h1 col02">350</td>
<td headers="row26 h1 col03">374</td>
<td headers="row26 col04">374</td>
<td headers="row26 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row26 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row26 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row26 col08">350</td>
<td headers="row26 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row26 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row26 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row26 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row26 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row26 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row27">
<td headers="row27 col01">1500 AD</td>
<td headers="row27 h1 col02">425</td>
<td headers="row27 h1 col03">540</td>
<td headers="row27 col04">460</td>
<td headers="row27 h2 col05">440</td>
<td headers="row27 h2 col06">540</td>
<td headers="row27 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row27 col08">425</td>
<td headers="row27 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row27 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row27 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row27 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row27 col13">500</td>
<td headers="row27 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row28">
<td headers="row28 col01">1600 AD</td>
<td headers="row28 h1 col02">545</td>
<td headers="row28 h1 col03">579</td>
<td headers="row28 col04">579</td>
<td headers="row28 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row28 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row28 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row28 col08">545</td>
<td headers="row28 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row28 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row28 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row28 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row28 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row28 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row29">
<td headers="row29 col01">1650 AD</td>
<td headers="row29 h1 col02">470</td>
<td headers="row29 h1 col03">545</td>
<td headers="row29 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row29 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row29 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row29 col07">500</td>
<td headers="row29 col08">545</td>
<td headers="row29 h3 col09">500</td>
<td headers="row29 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row29 h4 col11">470</td>
<td headers="row29 h4 col12">545</td>
<td headers="row29 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row29 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row30">
<td headers="row30 col01">1700 AD</td>
<td headers="row30 h1 col02">600</td>
<td headers="row30 h1 col03">679</td>
<td headers="row30 col04">679</td>
<td headers="row30 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row30 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row30 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row30 col08">610</td>
<td headers="row30 h3 col09">600</td>
<td headers="row30 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row30 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row30 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row30 col13"> </td>
<td headers="row30 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row31">
<td headers="row31 col01">1750 AD</td>
<td headers="row31 h1 col02">629</td>
<td headers="row31 h1 col03">961</td>
<td headers="row31 col04">770</td>
<td headers="row31 h2 col05">735</td>
<td headers="row31 h2 col06">805</td>
<td headers="row31 col07">795</td>
<td headers="row31 col08">720</td>
<td headers="row31 h3 col09">700</td>
<td headers="row31 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row31 h4 col11">629</td>
<td headers="row31 h4 col12">961</td>
<td headers="row31 col13">790</td>
<td headers="row31 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row32">
<td headers="row32 col01">1800 AD</td>
<td headers="row32 h1 col02">813</td>
<td headers="row32 h1 col03">1,125</td>
<td headers="row32 col04">954</td>
<td headers="row32 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row32 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row32 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row32 col08">900</td>
<td headers="row32 h3 col09">900</td>
<td headers="row32 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row32 h4 col11">813</td>
<td headers="row32 h4 col12">1,125</td>
<td headers="row32 col13">980</td>
<td headers="row32 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row33">
<td headers="row33 col01">1850 AD</td>
<td headers="row33 h1 col02">1,128</td>
<td headers="row33 h1 col03">1,402</td>
<td headers="row33 col04">1,241</td>
<td headers="row33 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row33 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row33 col07">1,265</td>
<td headers="row33 col08">1,200</td>
<td headers="row33 h3 col09">1,200</td>
<td headers="row33 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row33 h4 col11">1,128</td>
<td headers="row33 h4 col12">1,402</td>
<td headers="row33 col13">1,260</td>
<td headers="row33 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row34">
<td headers="row34 col01">1900 AD</td>
<td headers="row34 h1 col02">1,550</td>
<td headers="row34 h1 col03">1,762</td>
<td headers="row34 col04">1,633</td>
<td headers="row34 h2 col05">1,650</td>
<td headers="row34 h2 col06">1,710</td>
<td headers="row34 col07">1,656</td>
<td headers="row34 col08">1,625</td>
<td headers="row34 h3 col09">1,600</td>
<td headers="row34 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row34 h4 col11">1,550</td>
<td headers="row34 h4 col12">1,762</td>
<td headers="row34 col13">1,650</td>
<td headers="row34 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row35">
<td headers="row35 col01">1910 AD</td>
<td headers="row35 h1 col02">1,750</td>
<td headers="row35 h1 col03"> </td>
<td headers="row35 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row35 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row35 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row35 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row35 col08"> </td>
<td headers="row35 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row35 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row35 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row35 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row35 col13">1,750</td>
<td headers="row35 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row36">
<td headers="row36 col01">1920 AD</td>
<td headers="row36 h1 col02">1,860</td>
<td headers="row36 h1 col03"> </td>
<td headers="row36 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row36 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row36 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row36 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row36 col08"> </td>
<td headers="row36 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row36 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row36 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row36 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row36 col13">1,860</td>
<td headers="row36 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row37">
<td headers="row37 col01">1930 AD</td>
<td headers="row37 h1 col02">2,070</td>
<td headers="row37 h1 col03"> </td>
<td headers="row37 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row37 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row37 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row37 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row37 col08"> </td>
<td headers="row37 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row37 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row37 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row37 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row37 col13">2,070</td>
<td headers="row37 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row38">
<td headers="row38 col01">1940 AD</td>
<td headers="row38 h1 col02">2,300</td>
<td headers="row38 h1 col03"> </td>
<td headers="row38 col04"> </td>
<td headers="row38 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row38 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row38 col07"> </td>
<td headers="row38 col08"> </td>
<td headers="row38 h3 col09"> </td>
<td headers="row38 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row38 h4 col11"> </td>
<td headers="row38 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row38 col13">2,300</td>
<td headers="row38 col14"> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="right" valign="bottom" id="row39">
<td headers="row39 col01">1950 AD</td>
<td headers="row39 h1 col02">2,400</td>
<td headers="row39 h1 col03">2,556</td>
<td headers="row39 col04">2,527</td>
<td headers="row39 h2 col05"> </td>
<td headers="row39 h2 col06"> </td>
<td headers="row39 col07">2,516</td>
<td headers="row39 col08">2,500</td>
<td headers="row39 h3 col09">2,400</td>
<td headers="row39 h3 col10"> </td>
<td headers="row39 h4 col11">2,486</td>
<td headers="row39 h4 col12"> </td>
<td headers="row39 col13">2,520</td>
<td headers="row39 col14">2,556</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>Sources:</p>
<p>Biraben, Jean-Noel, 1980, An Essay Concerning Mankind's Evolution,<br />
Population, Selected Papers, December, table 2.</p>
<p>Durand, John D., 1974, "Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation,"<br />
University of Pennsylvania, Population Center,<br />
Analytical and Technical Reports, Number 10, table 2.</p>
<p>Haub, Carl, 1995, "How Many People Have Ever Lived on Earth?"<br />
Population Today, February, p. 5.</p>
<p>McEvedy, Colin and Richard Jones, 1978, "Atlas of World Population History,"<br />
Facts on File, New York, pp. 342-351.</p>
<p>Thomlinson, Ralph, 1975, "Demographic Problems, Controversy Over Population Control,"<br />
Second Edition, Table 1.</p>
<p>United Nations (UN), 1973, The Determinants and Consequences of<br />
Population Trends, Population Studies, No. 50., p.10.</p>
<p>United Nations, 1999, The World at Six Billion, Table 1, "World Population From"<br />
Year 0 to Stabilization, p. 5,<br />
<a title="this link will take you to the United Nations web site which is not part of the Census Bureau Web site" href="http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbilpart1.pdf">http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbilpart1.pdf</a> <span class="offsite"><img border="0" src="/main/www/img/offsite.gif" width="15" height="12" align="middle" /> longdesc="This link to a non-federal Web site does not imply endorsement of any particular product, company, or content." title="This link to a non-federal Web site does not imply endorsement of any particular product, company, or content." alt="This link to a non-federal Web site does not imply endorsement of any particular product, company, or content." /></span></p>
<p>U.S. Census Bureau (USCB), 2008, "Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950-2050",<br />
Data updated 12-15-2008,<br />
<a href="/ipc/www/idb/worldpop.html">http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/worldpop.html</a></p>
</div>
<div id="foot">
<hr />
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division<br />
<a href="http://ask.census.gov">Questions?</a> / 1-866-758-1060<br /></div>
</div>Humanhttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/human-12008-11-27T03:42:13.000Z2008-11-27T03:42:13.000ZRobert Dickinsonhttps://swmm2000.com/members/doonePlace<div><p align="center"><em><strong><font size="6" face="Arial" color="#808080">Early Modern Human Culture</font></strong></em></p>
<blockquote>
<p align="left"><big><font face="Times New Roman"><strong><font size="1"><br /></font></strong></font></big> <font face="Arial">Early modern Homo sapiens in Africa and Southwest Asia 100,000 years ago made tools that were similar to those of the Neandertals and other late archaic <i>Homo sapiens</i>.  <span lang="en-us">T</span>hese were mostly simple Mousterian-like Levallois flake and core tools.  However, by <span lang="en-us">9</span>0,000<span lang="en-us">-75,000</span> years ago <span lang="en-us">some</span> modern humans began producing new kinds of artifacts that were revolutionary enough to warrant their being placed into a different Paleolithic stage--the <font color="#333333"><b>Upper Paleolithic</b></font>.  This was the height of technical sophistication during the Old Stone Age.  These innovative developments are most well known from European sites, but similar advances were occurring elsewhere in the Old World and later in the New World as well.  Foreshadowing these new technologies were harpoon-like bone projectile points in use by at least 75,000 years ago in Central Africa.  Ultimately, there were a number of different regional Upper Paleolithic tool traditions.  The most sophisticated may have been the <font color="#333333"><b>Magdalenian</b></font> <a href="sounds/Magdalenian.mp3"><img border="0" src="images/horn.gif" alt="click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced" align="absbottom" width="20" height="19" /></a> <span lang="en-us">t</span>radition of Western Europe.  It began about 17,000 years ago and lasted until the end of the last ice age around 10,000 <span lang="en-us">years ago</span>.</font></p>
<p align="center"><strong style="font-weight: 400"><span lang="en-us"><font face="Arial" color="#008080" size="1"><br /></font> <font size="4" face="Arial" color="#808080">Paleolithic</font> <font size="4" face="Arial" color="#808080">Tool Traditions In Europe</font></span></strong></p>
<div align="center">
<center>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse">
<tr>
<td align="center"><span lang="en-us"><b><font size="2" face="Arial"> <font color="#333333">Paleolithic Stage <br />
of Development</font></font></b></span></td>
<th align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial"><b><font color="#333333">Beginning<br /></font></b> <span style="font-weight: 400">(years ago)</span></font></th>
<th align="center"><b><font size="2" face="Arial" color="#333333">Cultural Tradition</font></b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" rowspan="4"><span style="font-weight: 400"><font face="Arial" size="2">Upper Paleolithic</font></span></th>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2"><span lang="en-us"> </span>17,000 </font></td>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">Magdalenian</font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">21,000</font></td>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">Solutrean</font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">27,000</font></td>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">Gravettian</font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">33,000</font></td>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">  Aurignacian/Chatelperronian  </font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center"><span style="font-weight: 400"><font face="Arial" size="2">Middle Paleolithi<span lang="en-us">c</span></font></span></th>
<td align="center"><span lang="en-us"><font face="Arial" size="2">    75,000+ ?</font></span></td>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">Mousterian</font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center"><span style="font-weight: 400"><font face="Arial" size="2">Lower Paleolithic</font></span></th>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2"><span lang="en-us">    </span> 700,000+ ?<span lang="en-us">   </span></font></td>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2"><span lang="en-us">  </span> Acheulian <span lang="en-us"> </span></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
</div>
<div align="center">
<center>
<table border="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" id="AutoNumber1">
<tr>
<td height="10"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span lang="en-us"><font face="Arial" size="2" color="#FF0000">Note:</font><font face="Arial" size="2"> t</font></span><font face="Arial" size="2">he <span lang="en-us">Acheulian</span> Tradition began by at <span lang="en-us">least</span> 1.<span lang="en-us">5</span> million years ago <span lang="en-us">in</span><br />
<span lang="en-us">Africa.  I</span>t did not reach Europe until much later when <span lang="en-us">the</span> first <span lang="en-us">humans<br /></span> arrived.<span lang="en-us">  The Mousterian Tradition very likely began in Africa around<br />
150,000-100,000 years ago.  The first upper paleolithic tool traditions<br />
probably evolved in Africa as well.</span></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
</div>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial">The various Upper Paleolithic tool traditions were successful cultural adaptations to diverse environments around the world.  In temperate and subarctic regions of the <span lang="en-us">n</span>orthern <span lang="en-us">h</span>emisphere, <font color="#333333"><b>specialized big game hunting</b></font> was the most common <a href="glossary.htm#subsistence_pattern">subsistence strategy</a>.  However, even among the societies that focused their hunting efforts on reindeer, horses, and other large mammals, there was exploitation of vegetable foods, fish, and other small animals.  Upper Paleolithic peoples, such as the <font color="#333333"><b>Cro-Magnon</b></font> of Europe, became progressively more efficient at acquiring food.  Small game and plant food exploitation became increasingly important to them after 15,000 <span lang="en-us">years ago</span>.  This was a necessity <span lang="en-us">because</span> their populations apparently were growing rapidly and the climate was changing as the ice began to melt <span lang="en-us">near</span> the end of the last ice age.  This climate related change in subsistence pattern began even earlier in the <span lang="en-us">Southwest Asia</span> and other relatively warm and dry regions.</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial">The Cro-Magnon people increased their food supply by developing <font color="#333333"><b>coordinated group hunting</b></font> techniques for the killing of large herd animals, especially in the river valleys of Western Europe and the plains of Central and Eastern Europe.  They also developed new specialized hunting weapons.  The art of spear hunting was revolutionized by the invention of the <font color="#333333"><b>spear thrower</b></font> (or atlatl <a href="sounds/atlatl.mp3"><img border="0" src="images/horn.gif" alt="click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced" align="absbottom" width="20" height="19" /></a>) about 17,000-15,000 years ago.  This was a wood or bone rod with a hook on one end that fit into a socket at the base of a spear.<span lang="en-us">  This device was used to push off spears.</span>  <span lang="en-us">It</span> increased the range and force of impact of projectiles by essentially increasing the length of the spear thrower's arm.  The net effect was that hunters did not have to get as close to prey before throwing their spears.  <a href="glossary.htm#toggle-head_harpoon">Toggle-head harpoons</a> <a href="sounds/toggle_head_harpoons.mp3"><img border="0" src="images/horn.gif" alt="click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced" align="absbottom" width="20" height="19" /></a> were invented about this time as well.  The bow and arrow were invented by 12,000 years ago or a bit earlier.  This further increased the range of projectiles.  The fact that these weapon systems were developed toward the end of the last ice age is probably not a coincidence.</font></p>
<div align="center">
<center>
<table border="0" cellspacing="2" style="border-collapse: collapse">
<tr>
<td width="100%"><img border="0" src="images/atlatl_from_Tylor_1904.gif" alt="drawing of an atlatl being used to throw a spear" width="329" height="48" /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="100%">
<p align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">Spear thrower</font></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="15"></td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
</div>
<hr />
<p align="left"><i><font face="Arial"><font color="#FF0000">Note: </font> Spear throwers may have been made as early as 25,000 years ago in North Africa.  Whether the European Cro-Magnon people independently invented this technology later or acquired it from North Africa is not known.</font></i></p>
<hr />
<p align="left"><font face="Arial">During the roughly 5,000 years of final glacial melt, large game animals became progressively scarce <span lang="en-us">in the northern hemisphere</span>.  As a result, human hunting success would have been rarer.  The combined effect of rapidly changing climates and increased hunting by humans heavily contributed to the extinction of at least 50 genera of large animals (mostly mammals) at that time.  It also was in this late period after 15,000 years ago that fishing spears, hooks, and nets became increasingly more common.  In Europe, the main focus of fishing appears to have been salmon going up streams to spawn and seals that were pursuing them.</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial">The basis of many Upper Paleolithic stone tool forms was the <font color="#333333"><b>blade flake</b></font> <a href="sounds/blade_flake.mp3"><img border="0" src="images/horn.gif" alt="click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced" align="absbottom" width="20" height="19" /></a>.  This is a thin, roughly parallel-sided flake that is at least twice as long as it is wide.  The cross-section is usually either triangular or trapezoidal.  They were made out of brittle<span lang="en-us">-</span>breaking <span lang="en-us">rock</span> materials such as flint <a href="sounds/flint.mp3"><img border="0" src="images/horn.gif" alt="click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced" align="absbottom" width="20" height="19" /></a>, chert <a href="sounds/chert.mp3"><img border="0" src="images/horn.gif" alt="click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced" align="absbottom" width="20" height="19" /></a>, and obsidian <a href="sounds/obsidian.mp3"><img border="0" src="images/horn.gif" alt="click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced" align="absbottom" width="20" height="19" /></a>.  Blade flakes were <font color="#333333"><b>preforms</b></font> for the manufacture of many different kinds of tools<span lang="en-us">, such as</span> knives, hide scrapers, spear tips, drills, awls, burins, etc.</font></p>
<div align="center">
<center>
<table border="0" cellspacing="2" style="border-collapse: collapse">
<tr>
<td width="100%">
<p align="center"><img border="0" src="images/Upper_Paleolithic_blade_tools.gif" alt="Photos of 2 tools made from blade flakes" width="296" height="204" /></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="100%">
<p align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">European Upper Paleolithic tools made from blade flakes</font></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
</div>
<table border="0" align="right" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse">
<tr>
<td align="center" rowspan="3" width="10"> </td>
<td align="center" height="20"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="en-us"> </span> <img border="0" src="images/punch_flaking.gif" hspace="0" alt="drawing of a prepared blade core being struck with an antler punch and an antler hammer" width="107" height="117" /></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2"><span lang="en-us"> </span> Punch flaking<br />
     </font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial">Blade flakes were nearly standardized shapes that were struck off assembly line fashion from a prepared core usually by <font color="#333333"><b>punch flaking</b></font> <a href="sounds/punch_flaking.mp3"><img border="0" src="images/horn.gif" alt="click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced" align="absbottom" width="20" height="19" /></a>.  This method uses <font color="#333333"><b>indirect percussion</b></font> to <span lang="en-us">better</span> control the direction and force of the shock wave entering a core.  This facilitated the repeated production of long, delicate flakes.  Blades were struck off around <span lang="en-us">a</span> <font color="#333333"><b><span lang="en-us">prepared</span> core</b></font> like the careful unwinding and sectioning of a roll of paper.<span lang="en-us">  It is possible to knock off blade flakes with direct percussion using a hammerstone rather than a punch, but it is more difficult.</span></font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial">Tools made from blade flakes were <span lang="en-us">far</span> more efficient than core and flake tools made by earlier peoples when compared in terms of maximizing the use of precious brittle-flaking rock materials.  This increased efficiency can be measured roughly in terms of the amount of cutting edge that can be produced from the same amount of stone.<br />
 </font></p>
<div align="center">
<center>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse">
<tr>
<th align="center"><b><font size="2" face="Arial" color="#333333">Tool <span lang="en-us">Tradition and<br />
Tool</span> Category</font></b></th>
<th align="center"><b><font size="2" face="Arial"><span lang="en-us"> </span> <font color="#333333">Length of Cutting Edge<span lang="en-us">  </span><br />
Per Pound of Stone</font><span lang="en-us"><br />
<span style="font-weight: 400">(approximate)</span></span></font></b></th>
<th align="center"><b><font size="2" face="Arial"><font color="#333333">Increase in Efficiency<br />
<span lang="en-us"> </span> Over Previous Technology</font><span lang="en-us"><font color="#333333">  </font><br />
<span style="font-weight: 400">(approximate)</span></span></font></b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left"><span style="font-weight: 400"><font face="Arial" size="2"><span lang="en-us"> </span> Oldowan choppers<br />
<span lang="en-us"> </span> (<i>Homo habilis</i>)</font></span></th>
<td align="center"><span lang="en-us"><font face="Arial" size="2">2 inches<br /></font></span> <font face="Arial" size="2"><span lang="en-us"><font color="#808080">(5 cm.)</font></span></font></td>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">------</font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left"><span style="font-weight: 400"><font face="Arial" size="2"><span lang="en-us"> </span> Acheulian hand axes<br />
<span lang="en-us"> </span> (<i>Homo erectus</i>)<span lang="en-us">  </span></font></span></th>
<td align="center"><span lang="en-us"><font face="Arial" size="2">8 inches<br /></font></span> <font face="Arial" size="2"><span lang="en-us"><font color="#808080">(20 cm.)</font></span></font></td>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">400%</font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left"><span style="font-weight: 400"><font face="Arial" size="2"><span lang="en-us"> </span> Mousterian flake tools<br />
<span lang="en-us"> </span> (Neandertal)</font></span></th>
<td align="center"><span lang="en-us"><font face="Arial" size="2">2 1/3 feet</font><font color="#808080" face="Arial" size="2"><br />
(100 cm.)</font></span></td>
<td align="center"><span lang="en-us"><font face="Arial" size="2">4</font></span><font face="Arial" size="2"><span lang="en-us">90</span>%</font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left"><span style="font-weight: 400"><font face="Arial" size="2"><span lang="en-us"> </span> Upper Paleolithic blade flake tools<span lang="en-us">  </span><br />
<span lang="en-us"> </span> (modern humans)</font></span></th>
<td align="center" valign="top"><font face="Arial" size="2">10-<span lang="en-us">39</span> feet<br />
<font color="#808080"><span lang="en-us">(300-1200 cm.)</span></font></font></td>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2"><span lang="en-us">3</span>00-1<span lang="en-us">2</span>00%</font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
</div>
<div align="center">
<center>
<table border="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" id="AutoNumber2">
<tr>
<td height="10"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="100%"><font face="Arial" size="2"><span lang="en-us">Sources: Watson, W. (1968) <i>Flint Implements: An Account of Stone Age Techniques and Cultures;<br />
             </i> Hester, J. and J. Grady (1982) <i>Introduction to Archaeology.</i></span></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
</div>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial">Upper Paleolithic tool makers also invented a further refinement in working with stone.  After preliminary shaping by percussion flaking, they often finished a tool with <font color="#333333"><b>pressure flaking</b></font> <a href="sounds/pressure_flaking.mp3"><img border="0" src="images/horn.gif" alt="click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced" align="absbottom" width="20" height="19" /></a>.  They literally pushed off the edge flakes with <span lang="en-us">the tip of a deer</span> antler in the final shaping and thinning process.  This resulted in small, regular flake scars and much greater control in determining the shape of the final product.  Pressure flaking was also used to retouch, or sharpen, <span lang="en-us">thin</span> edges <span lang="en-us">of spear tips and knives</span>.</font></p>
<p align="center"><img border="0" src="images/eden_point.gif" alt="photo of a long stone knife blade with small, uniform, parallel flake scars" width="268" height="113" /></p>
<table border="0" align="right" cellspacing="2" style="border-collapse: collapse">
<tr>
<td align="center"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="en-us">         </span> <img border="0" src="images/burin.gif" alt="drawing of a stone burin with its gouging chisel end highlighted" width="89" height="133" /></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">Burin <span lang="en-us">made from<br />
a blade flake</span></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" height="5"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial">During the Upper Paleolithic, we see the first abundant evidence of tools for making other tools.  Such things as narrow gouging chisels, known as <font color="#333333"><b>burins</b></font> <a href="sounds/burins.mp3"><img border="0" src="images/horn.gif" alt="click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced" align="absbottom" width="20" height="19" /></a>, were used to make and shape a host of other implements out of bone, antler<span lang="en-us">, and ivory</span>.  Additional tools created for the purpose of working on other implements <span lang="en-us">such as pressure flakers,</span> punches<span lang="en-us">,</span> <span lang="en-us">and spear shaft straighteners</span>.  The Upper Paleolithic also saw a heavy dependence on <font color="#333333"><b>compound tools</b></font>, such as intentionally detachable harpoon points and interchangeable spear foreshafts of hard wood attached to spears.  Compound tools have the advantage that they can be repaired.  When one part breaks, it can be replaced rather than replacing the entire tool.</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial">Compound tools and tools designed to work on other implements are not just new kinds of tools but rather new kinds of tool-using principles.  This was a giant intellectual leap forward.  It also extended the range of raw materials that could be used for tool making.  Bone and antler especially came into more common use.  They had been used occasionally in the earlier Mousterian <span lang="en-us">t</span>ool <span lang="en-us">t</span>radition, but were only modified clumsily by hammering, scraping, and burning.  Among the Cro-Magnon people, bone and antler progressively replaced wood and stone for many functions.  Bone and antler are more durable than wood and more flexible than stone so they do not break as easily and yet can be used to make relatively sharp cutting edges and penetrating projectile points.  The amount of time that they are still usable can be extended by resharpening when they become dull.  These materials were now being employed to make long thin knives, awls, sewing needles, clothing fasteners, harpoons with barbs, and many other useful <span lang="en-us">implements</span>.  One result was that tailored clothing and tents were easier to make.  The first known sewing needle came from southwestern France and dates to about 25,000 years ago.  Residues of animal skin pants, shirts, and shoes have been found in a 22,000 year old Cro-Magnon grave near Moscow in Russia.</font></p>
<div align="center">
<center>
<table border="0" cellspacing="2" style="border-collapse: collapse">
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><img border="0" src="images/sewing_needle.gif" alt="drawing of a bone sewing needle" width="160" height="10" /></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle" width="50"></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><font face="Arial" size="2"><img border="0" src="images/harpoon_point.gif" alt="drawing of a bone harpoon point" width="260" height="35" /></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">Bone sewing needle</font><span lang="en-us"><font size="4"> </font></span></td>
<td align="center" width="50"></td>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">Bone harpoon point <span lang="en-us">with barbs</span>  </font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
</div>
<p align="center"><font color="#408080" face="Times New Roman"><span lang="en-us"> </span><br /></font> <b><font face="Arial" color="#808080" size="5">Upper Paleolithic "Art"</font></b></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial">The Cro-Magnon people of Europe regularly decorated their tools and sculpted small pieces of stone, bone, antler, and <span lang="en-us">ivory</span>.  Necklaces, bracelets, and decorative pendants were made of bones, teeth, and shells.  Cave walls were often painted with naturalistic scenes of animals.  Clay was also modeled occasionally.  From our culture's perspective, these symbolic and naturalistic representations would be referred to as art.  However, that is an ethnocentric projection.  For the Cro-Magnon who made this art, it was very likely thought of as being something different, or at least much more, than we think of as art.  For instance, it may have had magical and/or religious functions.</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial">Upper Paleolithic European <span lang="en-us">representational</span> art began by at least 32,000 years ago and became intense 15,000-10,000 years ago.  Perhaps, the most prominent portable art was in the form that has become known as <font color="#333333"><b>Venus figurines</b></font> <a href="sounds/Venus_figurines.mp3"><img border="0" src="images/horn.gif" alt="click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced" align="absbottom" width="20" height="19" /></a>.  These are sculptures of women.  They are not portraits but rather faceless idealized representations of well fed, healthy, usually pregnant <span lang="en-us">nude</span> women with <span lang="en-us">exceptionally</span> large buttocks and breasts.  Because of these exaggerated sexual characteristics, they are thought by <span lang="en-us">most</span> paleoanthropologists to be ritual objects symbolizing female fertility.  Many of these stylized carvings are reminiscent of modern abstract art.  Venus figurines were made from 27,000 years ago down to the end of the last ice age 10,000 years ago.  They have been found from Western Europe all of the way to Siberia.  Most were small enough in size to be easily hand held.<span lang="en-us">  The Venus of Laussel shown below on the right is a rare exception.</span> </font></p>
<div align="center">
<center>
<table border="0" cellspacing="2" style="border-collapse: collapse">
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="bottom"><img border="0" src="images/Venus_of_Willendorf.jpg" alt="Photo of the Venus of Willendorf" width="101" height="156" /></td>
<td align="center" valign="bottom" width="10"> </td>
<td align="center" valign="bottom"><font face="Arial" size="2"><img border="0" src="images/venus_of_Lespugue.jpg" align="center" width="101" height="156" /></font></td>
<td align="center" valign="bottom" width="13"> </td>
<td align="center" valign="bottom"><font face="Times New Roman"><img border="0" src="images/venus_of_Laussel.jpg" alt="photo of the Venus of Laussel" width="101" height="156" /></font></td>
<td align="center" valign="bottom"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">Venus of Willendorf<br />
Austria<br /></font> <font face="Arial" size="1" color="#333333"><span lang="en-us">4 3/8 inches (11.1 cm.) tall</span></font></td>
<td align="center" width="10"> </td>
<td align="center"><span lang="en-us"><font face="Arial" size="2">Venus of Lespugue<br />
France<br /></font> <font face="Arial" size="1" color="#333333">5 3/4 inches (14.6 cm.) tall</font></span></td>
<td align="center" width="13"> </td>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">Venus of Laussel<br />
France<span lang="en-us"><br /></span></font> <span lang="en-us"><font face="Arial" size="1" color="#333333">17 inches (43.2 cm.) tall</font></span></td>
<td align="center"></td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
</div>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial">Not all of the portable art was in the form of Venus figurines.  Many small carvings have been found that depict animals and people, including men.</font></p>
<div align="center">
<center>
<table border="0" cellspacing="2" style="border-collapse: collapse">
<tr>
<td width="100%">
<p align="center"><img border="0" src="images/carved_bear_teeth.gif" alt="2 drawings incised bear teeth--one has the image of a fish carved into its surface and the other has a seal (both have single holes drilled through them to allow these ornaments to be suspended with string)" width="332" height="76" /></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="100%">
<p align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">Carved bear teeth (from Duruthy Cave, France)</font></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
</div>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial">The Cro-Magnon people are, perhaps, most well known for their paintings on the walls of caves.  Although, this cave art is most abundant in southwest France and northern Spain, it was made elsewhere <span lang="en-us">by other early modern humans</span> as well.  With cave art, we see the first large scale, concrete symbols of human thoughts, feelings, and perhaps even beliefs about the supernatural.  Over 150 Western European caves have been found with these ice age paintings on their walls. </font></p>
<div align="center">
<center>
<table border="0" cellspacing="2" style="border-collapse: collapse">
<tr>
<td width="100%" align="center"><font face="Times New Roman"><img border="0" src="images/cave_art.jpg" alt="3 photos of cave art--1st is a horse painting from Lascaux, 2nd is a bison from Altamira, and 3rd are deer from Lascaux" width="529" height="118" /></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><font face="Arial" size="2">Cave art from Lascaux, France (left and right) and Altamira, Spain (center)</font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
</div>
</blockquote>
</div>Top 25 Inventions in Human Historyhttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/6651140:DiscussionEntry:86472008-10-27T14:51:59.000Z2008-10-27T14:51:59.000ZRobert Dickinsonhttps://swmm2000.com/members/doonePlace<div>The ranking is constructed from the considered opinion of many people, too many to name. It’s neither right nor wrong—the purpose of this discourse is to provoke argument. What is included wrongly? What is left off in error? How is the order dreadfully, woefully messed up? And now, a brief tour through the history of innovation, working backward from #25: <b>Innovation #25</b> is relativity and quantum mechanics, invented in 1912. We are a scant 103 years since special relativity, since Einstein’s miraculous year of 1905, and everything we touch in industrialized society owes a debt to Einstein and his colleagues. Our entire way of looking at matter and the universe changed in the seven years from 1905-12. In fact, you would not be reading this paper on a screen, talking on the telephone, watching television, driving a car, or using any other modern marvel without the solid-state electronics that were made possible by this revolutionary innovation in how we think about the structure of the universe, from the largest galaxies down to the smallest subatomic particles that allow us to make microelectronics and nanotechnology. In fact, one of the more troublesome and problematic challenges of the twenty-first century—how to get rid of the atom bombs we created in the twentieth century—also owes its existence to relativity and quantum mechanics. Innovation #24 is electromagnetism. Again, the idea that we can harness electricity to do work that used to take back-breaking labor by people and animals is a revolution. Hans Christian Orsted first noticed the effect in 1820; in 1821, Michael Faraday came up with an electric motor. Most of the motive force in modern society, and all the electricity that T. Boone Pickens advertises as being created by burning fossil fuels—all the things that let us ride up in elevators and escalators, turn on our cars, have electric motors do work for us, and have electric lights—all of it comes from theories of electromagnetism. How important is electricity? Five years after Edison installed the first electric light bulb in Manhattan, the first generating plant, the Edison Electric Company, wished to celebrate its anniversary by turning off the lights for five minutes at midnight on New Year’s Eve. The mayor of New York pronounced that this would be a hazard to public safety and prevented Edison turning off the power. Think about going to the grocery store in the absence of the electricity that runs the freezer and refrigerator cases. Think about our food distribution system, our communication and transportation systems. Nothing we do in an industrialized society is possible without electricity. Indeed, a critical measure of our success in Iraq and Afghanistan is our ability to build infrastructure and keep the lights on in. Innovation #23 is evolution and natural selection. Darwin first posited this theory in On the Origins of Species in 1859. The theory was 25 years in the making, but Darwin, for reasons we now understand, was dreadfully afraid to publish it. It changed the way we view our place in the natural order. Some would say it forever debased humankind, because Darwin made it clear that we are just animals—animals of a special sort, but animals nonetheless. Our understanding of evolution and natural selection has since informed all of our understandings of biology, ecology, healthcare, population dynamics, and the many consequences of human actions in the natural world. Innovation #22: Before electric power, there was steam power. The first steam engine was the French Papin engine of 1690. From 1690 through the early part of the 18th century, through Savory to Newcomb in 1712 and finally to Watt, the steam engine made a huge difference because it multiplied man’s ability to do work. Before the steam engine, you needed draft animals to do anything substantial. The mining of coal was incidental and small-scale. The steam engine, which was used to drive the pumps that could drain the mines, made mining coal practical. You could finally go deep enough to get coal, which in turn was a primary fuel for the steam engine. This is an example of an innovation fueling and making available another innovation that in turn fed back on the first innovation. One of the things we learn in studying history is that there is no straight line of ascent—we always zigzag. The steam engine was truly a step forward, although it took over 100 years for it to come to final form and end up driving locomotives and steamboats and changing transportation forever, which also changed economies and nations. Innovation #21: Before the steam engine, if you wanted to do serious hard work, you did it with water power. Water power was first exploited in 240 BCE, in the Fertile Crescent area in the Middle East and in Asia Minor. It is a tremendously efficient innovation, because it drives heavy millstones without draft animals. It changes the motion of falling water into useful work. Water power remained an important part of society and the economy well into the developments that sparked the Industrial Revolution in Europe. In fact, some would argue that the abundant rainfall and number of rivers in Europe created an economy based on water power that permitted Europe to develop technologies that outstripped the rest of the world beginning in the late Renaissance. The same is true of the factory system of New England, where mills were built to harness the rivers of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. As to efficiency, a car’s gasoline engine can reach an efficiency level of only about 30 percent in terms of conversion of fuel to effort. An “undershot” water wheel, where the water flows beneath the wheel, invented more than two millennia ago, is over 25 percent efficient. And if you build a sluice and make the water an overshot water wheel, so the water falls on top of the wheel, the efficiency rockets to 75 percent. If we could build cars like that, a 100 mpg car would be no problem at all. The problem is just building a big enough water tank. Innovation #20 is more of a world view. It is the concept of science itself, which until well past the time of Thomas Jefferson was called natural philosophy. There was no differentiation between the study of philosophy and the study of man’s place in the world and his relation to God. Newton himself said that he was trying to understand the world and the universe so that he could understand God’s plan. Einstein echoed this in saying that he studied physics because he tried to understand the “mind of God.” The use of the scientific method and of objective systems of understanding and codifying the world originated in the sixth century BCE in Greece, when we went from observation to theory. Observation had long preceded theory; it was what you did if you wanted to understand the calendar or astronomy, when to plant and when to reap. But that was purely empirical. It was the Greeks who gave us this idea that there was some objective theory that knit things together that was outside of but understandable by man’s experience. They also gave us formal systems—mathematics, logic, statistics. Later thinkers gave us concepts like place value (think about trying to write big numbers in Roman numerals) and, as discussed earlier, the very concept of zero. Innovation #19, which appears at the top of many lists of innovations, is moveable type. Most Westerners would credit moveable type to the Gutenberg press of 1436. But in fact moveable type goes back to imperial China in 1040. There the type pieces were ceramic; Koreans took this invention forward about 200 years later using some metals. But the difficulty is that in pictographic languages, such as Chinese and Korean, which have 5,000 characters, the time required to find and remove one piece of type from a box system of 5,000 made it impractical and inefficient to set type. The Koreans and Chinese also had social institutions that limited printing to a bureaucratic and governmental system. There was no private market for printed materials, and eventually those cultures went back to one-off woodblock printing. Fortunately for us, Gutenberg came up with the idea of moveable type, special inks, and an efficient press, and understood the advances in what are called the type metals—tin, lead, and antimony. His innovation found a ready market because by that time, every educated person in Europe wanted the Vulgate Bible. The desire to have a Bible of one’s own drove the market. This is also an example of failures of protection of inventions. Gutenberg made all of his apprentices and everyone who worked in his shop sign a draconian nondisclosure agreement. And yet, within five years of Gutenberg’s first use of moveable type, the technology had spread all over as his apprentices left and formed their own shops, and thus has it ever been. Innovation #18 is fossil fuels. Today, when we hear fossil fuels, we tend to think that maybe we’ve gotten into trouble with this one. But fossil fuels have been critically important in the last hundred years. The first recorded uses of coal were around 1,000 BCE, in the Middle East, when it was said that there were rocks that burned like charcoal. These were exposed coal scenes where people could simply chip away at the surface to collect them, but they also produced very hot, sustainable fires. Coal and charcoal contributed to many other important technologies. Getting beyond coal, however, had to wait a long time. The first use of natural gas drilled for its own purpose and not, for instance, for a flame (which became known as the Oracle of Delphi) was in 1859, when we drilled our first well in Ohio. In the same year in western Pennsylvania the first oil well was drilled and the first oil refined. In the century and a half since then, we have come to understand that our addiction to fossil fuels is perhaps irreversible. Fossil fuels changed the way in which economies operated. For the first time, the density of energy and fuel made it possible to make things portable. That meant changes in transportation. At the Ford Museum in Dearborn, MI, there are some steam engines that stand 80′ high. Today we can build engines small enough to power weed-whackers, barely the size of a softball. And it’s all because of the energy density of fossil fuels. We will not replace fossil fuels completely in our lifetimes, but we are beginning to understand that petroleum and natural gas may be too valuable to burn to get from point A to point B. That is because these hydrocarbons are also the stuff of which we make miracle drugs and plastics and thousands of other things we consider indispensable. Innovation #17 is the specialization of labor, or some would say tribal and clan organization. The idea that some people do some things better than others has been with us since well before the dawn of recorded history. Perhaps the first instance of that was the recognition that some people are well suited for hunting and others for gathering, that some people are better out there in the field and others make food that’s tasty. Sexual dimorphism also gave us the ability to separate roles. We continue to push the boundaries of that today in society. Traditional societies have those roles relatively well set, and one of the great sources of friction in the world is the clash between societies that are overcoming those roles and those that choose not to. But the specialization of labor went far beyond to the specialization of roles in society, so that some people could knap flint and make tools, and others could use those tools. Some could make arrows and bows and spears and others could hunt with them. Some were good at making fire, and others not so good. The idea that you can build a society by specializing those roles freed a lot of people and a lot of time, improved efficiency, and created value. Innovation #16, paper, ia a relatively recent innovation. Paper was first mentioned by the Chinese in the year 105, and yet the Chinese continued to use other materials because paper was thought of as too fragile, writing too expensive. Paper continued to develop until finally, by the sixteenth century, wood pulp paper became more widely used than rag paper, which created an explosion in publishing and the growth of knowledge. It can really be said that wood pulp paper created the modern educational system. Before that, the cost to create a book and disseminate it created bottlenecks in the economy. With wood pulp paper, publishing began to bloom, and with it, modern scholarship. Innovation #15 is also at the top of most people’s innovation lists: the wheel. The first wheel was probably a millstone transported for its own use (as a stonecutter makes millstone in the quarry and then must somehow get it to the mill.) One theory of how the wheel might have developed is the idea of rollers and sledges. These systems were instrumental in building the Egyptian pyramids and before that the ziggurats of Mesopotamia, and perhaps the megaliths of Stonehenge. The wheel changed how we move things, how far we could go in a day, and how far we could farm from a village. Thus the wheel heralded the domestication of draft animals, because once you decide you’re tired of pulling the thing along, you look for something else that’s going to pull better. Innovation #14 is formal law codes. Certainly there were formal law codes before the Code of Hammurabi, who was codifying oral or fragmented law. But by 1,780 BCE, Hammurabi had laid down a formal code of laws, most of which did not deal with criminal law but rather with civil and commercial law. That trend continued through the Egyptian Book of the Dead, even to the Ten Commandments and the Twelve Tables of Rome. The great works of law and literature, including one of the greatest, the Book of Leviticus, show that we have come up with an awful lot of civil law, a lot of ways of saying how people should relate to one another commercially. In effect, we have been simply writing down our politics for thousands of years. But law is a way of reducing the cost of dispute resolution to a society, and thereby increasing the efficiency of its economy. It’s much better if you know what you’re supposed to do and what happens if you don’t. That predictability increases efficiency. Closely allied with law is Innovation #13, the concept of money. Money also has a long and storied history. Humankind started out with barter. What do you have that I need? It went with specialization of labor. If someone makes arrowheads all day, how are you going to get the arrowhead from him? You’re probably going to trade something you’ve just hunted with an arrowhead he made. Money comes into the picture as a way of solidifying the power of the state. That’s why the Sumerians, the first agricultural urban society, were the first to adopt a concept of money. In other words, I’ve got a lot of stuff stored, I’ll give you something that says you now own it. In effect, it’s a form of deed. We come forward from coins to paper money and finally the thing that enables all modern economies, the concept of fiat and credit currency, which was developed in late medieval Europe, in which letters of credit and letters of mark allowed us for the first time to bank on the power of the state itself rather than on the value of the coinage. Innovation #12 is gods and religions as social institutions. Religion creates social cohesion by creating in and out groups. It gives a priestly class super-authority (authority that doesn’t come from who you are, but rather who you represent) and shapes behavior in both prescriptive and motivational ways, all in a tremendously economically efficient mode. If you are a priest-king living in a palace in ancient Sumer, you have a prescriptive authority of saying, “This is the God speaking and not the man,” and you have the ability to promise rewards in the afterlife at no particular cost to yourself or the ruling class. It’s a debt you’ll never have to pay off. Economically and organizationally, religious organization has to be ranked right up there at the top with almost any other economic advance. Dostoevsky probably put it best in The Brothers Karamazov, when Fyodor Pavlovich said, “Damn it all, what wouldn’t I do to the man who first invented God!” To which Ivan Fyodorovich replies that there would have been no civilization if they hadn’t invented God, and no brandy, either. Innovation #11, systems of writing, went from pictographs, whether cuneiform or Chinese in their evolution, with thousands of individual symbols to be learned, to an alphabetic system which evolved from the Phoenicians, through a long period of evolution that we can trace all the way down to our use of Roman script today. The idea that characters can be combined in grammars to represent ideas made possible written records of tremendous complexity and efficiency, calculations as place value was developed, and Gutenberg’s printing press. Our alphabet derives directly from something 2,900 years old. One of the only advances thereafter was the development of a separate numbering system, what we call the Arabic numbering system. Innovation #10, food preservation, arguably first developed around 10,000 BCE in the Neolithic revolution, meant that you didn’t have to eat what you killed right away, but could save it for lean times. Portable food sources that are dried, freeze-dried, salted, spiced, pickled, cooked, smoked, or fermented allows travel over longer distances and more efficient migration with animals, changes society, and generates tremendous value. We understand all of these methods and techniques, but many of them have been supplanted by electric refrigeration. It would now be very hard to find salted cod, which was a staple of the northern European diet for 2,000 years. Instead we buy fresh cod or go to Costco, where they routinely fly in a 600-pound tuna caught two days ago in the Solomon Islands in the middle of the Pacific. (I shudder at the carbon footprint.) Innovation #9 is metallurgy. Ancient people built fires that burned hot. They looked in the bottom of the fire pit after a while and noticed there were some things there that were harder than the kinds of stones they were used to dealing with. What were they? What could be done with them? The progression was from copper, silver, and gold to soft metals first mined and smelted in about 4,400 BCE; to the idea of alloying certain metals, for instance copper with tin, to get bronze, which is a harder and more durable metal; to the Iron Age to finally steel. In fact, Damascus steel is probably the first instance of the use of nanotechnology, as carbon nanotubes from the furnaces were incorporated that made the steel remarkably hard yet not brittle. Metalworking became both a science and an art. In Jared Diamond’s theory of Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (1997), steel is the third leg of the dominance tripod of the West. Innovation #8: Ceramics and pottery. Some of the other things the ancients found in the bottom of a fire pit were pieces of clay that through repeated firings had gotten hard and had their porosity reduced. So you have the ability to make clay vessels, first to store dry things like grains, then fired clay in which you can store liquids, and finally earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain, which eventually in the hands of Chinese became high art. From a simple clay pot unearthed in Syria, 6,600 BCE we come all the way forward to our finest toilets today, which are vitreous china, made by the same processes of molding and firing clay. Our microelectronics also owe a debt to pottery and ceramics. Computer chips are built on a ceramic substrate that conducts the heat away from them. No ceramics, and the chips would burn themselves up and your cell phone would quit working. Innovation #7, farming, is really a chain of innovation over a long period of time. The first animal to be domesticated is generally thought to be the dog, around 15,000 BCE. (The horse was domesticated on the steppes of Central Asia in about 5,000 BCE, but the horse collar, which would make the horse so useful in farming, would have to wait another 4,000 years.) The domestication of plants began with the bottle gourd, something you could dry out and carry as a canteen. Imagine what it would be like if you couldn’t carry water with you when you go hunting. You would have to stay pretty close to sources of water. With a bottle gourd, you could go farther and have greater access to more crops and herds. Wheat was arguably the most important crop in the world until rice—the most efficient crop for converting the nutrients in sunlight into edible material—came along about 5,000 years later. From the domestication of animals and plants to hydraulic agriculture—the idea of artificial irrigation of crops that was developed in the Fertile Crescent—to the plow and the concept of crop rotation, chemical fertilizers (which didn’t occur to us until the seventeenth century), artificial nitrate fertilizers (which didn’t occur until we could synthesize them at the beginning of the twentieth century), and finally the Green Revolution in the early 1960s, farming has given us the ability to create unprecedented economic surplus, which many would say gave us the rest of the innovations listed here. Innovation #6: Clothing. Without clothing, people have to stay where it’s warm and dry. It took a long time to go from draping ourselves in tanned animal skins to figuring out how to use a needle to sew them into some sort of a shape, and a longer time still to the weaving of cloth and the making of tailored, layered clothes. In the stone age, not only did you eat what you killed, you also wore it. We’ve been able to reconstruct the clothes of Utze, a Copper Age hunter, found when a glacier in the Austrian Alps receded. He wore snow shoes lined with grass for insulation. He had a cape made out of woven grass, carried sophisticated animal skin bags for his gear, and he was truly a happy wanderer until someone shot him with an arrow and he died and got frozen in that glacier. Innovation #5: Symbolic communication. Starting with cave painting, human beings began to communicate with each other across time and space, not simply face to face. The idea that one could communicate with people through symbols made externalization of information and language possible. It gave us a storehouse of information that didn’t need to be transmitted just by showing someone how it worked, whether you were drawing on the walls in a cave in Lascaux or coming up with counters in Aswan that indicate that some dates were brought by camel from a far-away place. At the same time, symbolic communication in Sumer developed into cuneiform, pressing reeds into soft clay and baking them. (We know a tremendous amount about cuneiform because it’s really hard to get rid of clay tablets.) Innovation #4: Lever simple machine. There are a number of classes of simple machines, of which the lever is perhaps one of the oldest. It allows people to amplify their mechanical effort. Hammers and plows mean that instead of the effort of one person digging with hands or tools, now there is mechanical advantage. Farmers can plow deeper and throw farther and with more force. Archimedes is famously said to have stated, “Give me a place to stand with a lever and I will move the whole world.” In fact, the concept of a lever has moved the whole world since its invention. Innovation #3: Inclined plane simple machine. Don’t just think ramp, think blades, wedges, chutes, slides, and screws. Chopper cores unearthed at the Olduvai Gorge in East Africa that are 1.9 million years old show a clear effort to manufacture. They were used for chopping and scraping hides as well as for hunting. That technology was brought forward to the high art of the Clovis arrow point and the higher still art of Archimedes’ screw water pump, which permitted hydraulic irrigation by pumping water up out of canals and rivers and into irrigation ditches with a simple turn of the screw. Innovation #2 is the taming of fire. Fire has been around a long time, often caused by lightning strikes. But being able to make fire on demand, or first being able to capture it from the wild and preserve and use it as you wish, permitted humans to live in colder places, work after dark, inhabit places that were dark and perhaps dangerous, scare off animals at night, and cook food in order to preserve it. Fire-starting technologies are tremendously tough to master, which probably also meant more specialization of labor as humans began to use simple technologies like the fire plow, the fire drill, and the smudge bundle, otherwise known as the cigar. Innovation #1 is spoken language—true semantic, syntactic, phonetic language. This idea allowed humans to transmit information about the world from one person to another. It underlies all cooperation, the economy, and clan relationships. Spoken language is the most important innovation we have ever come up with. Source: <a href="http://www.fpri.org/footnotes/1325.200810.husick.stonetosilicon.html">http://www.fpri.org/footnotes/1325.200810.husick.stonetosilicon.html</a>
</div>Lifehttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/6651140:DiscussionEntry:85972008-08-11T16:18:08.000Z2008-08-11T16:18:08.000ZRobert Dickinsonhttps://swmm2000.com/members/doonePlace<div><table border="0" cellspacing="0" width="740">
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<td valign="top" rowspan="2"><img src="images/lectit.gif" width="43" height="160" border="0" alt="Lectures" hspace="10" /></td>
<td><img src="images/public.gif" width="150" height="30" border="0" alt="a brief history of mine" /><br />
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<td class="justify"><font face="Verdana, Arial" size="2"><b>Life in the Universe</b><br />
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<img src="images/life.gif" width="149" height="109" alt="" border="0" align="left" />In this talk, I would like to speculate a little, on the development of life in the universe, and in particular, the development of intelligent life. I shall take this to include the human race, even though much of its behaviour through out history, has been pretty stupid, and not calculated to aid the survival of the species. Two questions I shall discuss are, 'What is the probability of life existing else where in the universe?' and, 'How may life develop in the future?'<br />
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It is a matter of common experience, that things get more disordered and chaotic with time. This observation can be elevated to the status of a law, the so-called Second Law of Thermodynamics. This says that the total amount of disorder, or entropy, in the universe, always increases with time. However, the Law refers only to the total amount of disorder. The order in one body can increase, provided that the amount of disorder in its surroundings increases by a greater amount. This is what happens in a living being. One can define Life to be an ordered system that can sustain itself against the tendency to disorder, and can reproduce itself. That is, it can make similar, but independent, ordered systems. To do these things, the system must convert energy in some ordered form, like food, sunlight, or electric power, into disordered energy, in the form of heat. <img src="images/laptop.gif" width="141" height="200" alt="" border="0" align="right" vspace="8" hspace="8" />In this way, the system can satisfy the requirement that the total amount of disorder increases, while, at the same time, increasing the order in itself and its offspring. A living being usually has two elements: a set of instructions that tell the system how to sustain and reproduce itself, and a mechanism to carry out the instructions. In biology, these two parts are called genes and metabolism. But it is worth emphasising that there need be nothing biological about them. For example, a computer virus is a program that will make copies of itself in the memory of a computer, and will transfer itself to other computers. Thus it fits the definition of a living system, that I have given. Like a biological virus, it is a rather degenerate form, because it contains only instructions or genes, and doesn't have any metabolism of its own. Instead, it reprograms the metabolism of the host computer, or cell. Some people have questioned whether viruses should count as life, because they are parasites, and can not exist independently of their hosts. But then most forms of life, ourselves included, are parasites, in that they feed off and depend for their survival on other forms of life. I think computer viruses should count as life. Maybe it says something about human nature, that the only form of life we have created so far is purely destructive. Talk about creating life in our own image. I shall return to electronic forms of life later on.<br />
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What we normally think of as 'life' is based on chains of carbon atoms, with a few other atoms, such as nitrogen or phosphorous. One can speculate that one might have life with some other chemical basis, such as silicon, but carbon seems the most favourable case, because it has the richest chemistry. That carbon atoms should exist at all, with the properties that they have, requires a fine adjustment of physical constants, such as the QCD scale, the electric charge, and even the dimension of space-time. <img src="images/anthropic.gif" width="200" height="132" alt="" border="0" align="left" />If these constants had significantly different values, either the nucleus of the carbon atom would not be stable, or the electrons would collapse in on the nucleus. At first sight, it seems remarkable that the universe is so finely tuned. Maybe this is evidence, that the universe was specially designed to produce the human race. However, one has to be careful about such arguments, because of what is known as the Anthropic Principle. This is based on the self-evident truth, that if the universe had not been suitable for life, we wouldn't be asking why it is so finely adjusted. One can apply the Anthropic Principle, in either its Strong, or Weak, versions. <img src="images/strong2.gif" width="220" height="87" alt="" border="0" align="right" />For the Strong Anthropic Principle, one supposes that there are many different universes, each with different values of the physical constants. In a small number, the values will allow the existence of objects like carbon atoms, which can act as the building blocks of living systems. Since we must live in one of these universes, we should not be surprised that the physical constants are finely tuned. If they weren't, we wouldn't be here. The strong form of the Anthropic Principle is not very satisfactory. <img src="images/weak.gif" width="210" height="101" alt="" border="0" align="left" />What operational meaning can one give to the existence of all those other universes? And if they are separate from our own universe, how can what happens in them, affect our universe. Instead, I shall adopt what is known as the Weak Anthropic Principle. That is, I shall take the values of the physical constants, as given. But I shall see what conclusions can be drawn, from the fact that life exists on this planet, at this stage in the history of the universe.<br />
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There was no carbon, when the universe began in the Big Bang, about 15 billion years ago. It was so hot, that all the matter would have been in the form of particles, called protons and neutrons. <img src="images/first.gif" width="230" height="149" alt="" border="0" align="right" />There would initially have been equal numbers of protons and neutrons. However, as the universe expanded, it would have cooled. About a minute after the Big Bang, the temperature would have fallen to about a billion degrees, about a hundred times the temperature in the Sun. At this temperature, the neutrons will start to decay into more protons. If this had been all that happened, all the matter in the universe would have ended up as the simplest element, hydrogen, whose nucleus consists of a single proton. However, some of the neutrons collided with protons, and stuck together to form the next simplest element, helium, whose nucleus consists of two protons and two neutrons. But no heavier elements, like carbon or oxygen, would have been formed in the early universe. It is difficult to imagine that one could build a living system, out of just hydrogen and helium, and anyway the early universe was still far too hot for atoms to combine into molecules.<br />
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The universe would have continued to expand, and cool. But some regions would have had slightly higher densities than others. The gravitational attraction of the extra matter in those regions, would slow down their expansion, and eventually stop it. Instead, they would collapse to form galaxies and stars, starting from about two billion years after the Big Bang. Some of the early stars would have been more massive than our Sun. They would have been hotter than the Sun, and would have burnt the original hydrogen and helium, into heavier elements, such as carbon, oxygen, and iron. This could have taken only a few hundred million years. After that, some of the stars would have exploded as supernovas, and scattered the heavy elements back into space, to form the raw material for later generations of stars.<br />
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Other stars are too far away, for us to be able to see directly, if they have planets going round them. But certain stars, called pulsars, give off regular pulses of radio waves. We observe a slight variation in the rate of some pulsars, and this is interpreted as indicating that they are being disturbed, by having Earth sized planets going round them. Planets going round pulsars are unlikely to have life, because any living beings would have been killed, in the supernova explosion that led to the star becoming a pulsar. But, the fact that several pulsars are observed to have planets suggests that a reasonable fraction of the hundred billion stars in our galaxy may also have planets. The necessary planetary conditions for our form of life may therefore have existed from about four billion years after the Big Bang.<br />
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<img src="images/dna.gif" width="124" height="250" alt="" border="0" align="left" />Our solar system was formed about four and a half billion years ago, or about ten billion years after the Big Bang, from gas contaminated with the remains of earlier stars. The Earth was formed largely out of the heavier elements, including carbon and oxygen. Somehow, some of these atoms came to be arranged in the form of molecules of DNA. This has the famous double helix form, discovered by Crick and Watson, in a hut on the New Museum site in Cambridge. Linking the two chains in the helix, are pairs of nucleic acids. There are four types of nucleic acid, adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thiamine. I'm afraid my speech synthesiser is not very good, at pronouncing their names. Obviously, it was not designed for molecular biologists. An adenine on one chain is always matched with a thiamine on the other chain, and a guanine with a cytosine. Thus the sequence of nucleic acids on one chain defines a unique, complementary sequence, on the other chain. The two chains can then separate and each act as templates to build further chains. Thus DNA molecules can reproduce the genetic information, coded in their sequences of nucleic acids. Sections of the sequence can also be used to make proteins and other chemicals, which can carry out the instructions, coded in the sequence, and assemble the raw material for DNA to reproduce itself.<br />
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<img src="images/nucleic.gif" width="230" height="127" alt="" border="0" align="right" />We do not know how DNA molecules first appeared. The chances against a DNA molecule arising by random fluctuations are very small. Some people have therefore suggested that life came to Earth from elsewhere, and that there are seeds of life floating round in the galaxy. However, it seems unlikely that DNA could survive for long in the radiation in space. And even if it could, it would not really help explain the origin of life, because the time available since the formation of carbon is only just over double the age of the Earth.<br />
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One possibility is that the formation of something like DNA, which could reproduce itself, is extremely unlikely. However, in a universe with a very large, or infinite, number of stars, one would expect it to occur in a few stellar systems, but they would be very widely separated. The fact that life happened to occur on Earth, is not however surprising or unlikely. It is just an application of the Weak Anthropic Principle: if life had appeared instead on another planet, we would be asking why it had occurred there.<br />
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If the appearance of life on a given planet was very unlikely, one might have expected it to take a long time. More precisely, one might have expected life to appear just in time for the subsequent evolution to intelligent beings, like us, to have occurred before the cut off, provided by the life time of the Sun. This is about ten billion years, after which the Sun will swell up and engulf the Earth. An intelligent form of life, might have mastered space travel, and be able to escape to another star. But otherwise, life on Earth would be doomed.<br />
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There is fossil evidence, that there was some form of life on Earth, about three and a half billion years ago. This may have been only 500 million years after the Earth became stable and cool enough, for life to develop. But life could have taken 7 billion years to develop, and still have left time to evolve to beings like us, who could ask about the origin of life. If the probability of life developing on a given planet, is very small, why did it happen on Earth, in about one 14th of the time available.<br />
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The early appearance of life on Earth suggests that there's a good chance of the spontaneous generation of life, in suitable conditions. Maybe there was some simpler form of organisation, which built up DNA. Once DNA appeared, it would have been so successful, that it might have completely replaced the earlier forms. We don't know what these earlier forms would have been. One possibility is RNA. This is like DNA, but rather simpler, and without the double helix structure. Short lengths of RNA, could reproduce themselves like DNA, and might eventually build up to DNA. One can not make nucleic acids in the laboratory, from non-living material, let alone RNA. But given 500 million years, and oceans covering most of the Earth, there might be a reasonable probability of RNA, being made by chance.<br />
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As DNA reproduced itself, there would have been random errors. Many of these errors would have been harmful, and would have died out. Some would have been neutral. That is they would not have affected the function of the gene. Such errors would contribute to a gradual genetic drift, which seems to occur in all populations. And a few errors would have been favourable to the survival of the species. These would have been chosen by Darwinian natural selection.<br />
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The process of biological evolution was very slow at first. It took two and a half billion years, to evolve from the earliest cells to multi-cell animals, and another billion years to evolve through fish and reptiles, to mammals. But then evolution seemed to have speeded up. It only took about a hundred million years, to develop from the early mammals to us. The reason is, fish contain most of the important human organs, and mammals, essentially all of them. All that was required to evolve from early mammals, like lemurs, to humans, was a bit of fine-tuning.<br />
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But with the human race, evolution reached a critical stage, comparable in importance with the development of DNA. This was the development of language, and particularly written language. It meant that information can be passed on, from generation to generation, other than genetically, through DNA. There has been no detectable change in human DNA, brought about by biological evolution, in the ten thousand years of recorded history. But the amount of knowledge handed on from generation to generation has grown enormously. <img src="images/bits.gif" width="220" height="144" alt="" border="0" align="right" />The DNA in human beings contains about three billion nucleic acids. However, much of the information coded in this sequence, is redundant, or is inactive. So the total amount of useful information in our genes, is probably something like a hundred million bits. One bit of information is the answer to a yes no question. By contrast, a paper back novel might contain two million bits of information. So a human is equivalent to 50 Mills and Boon romances. A major national library can contain about five million books, or about ten trillion bits. So the amount of information handed down in books, is a hundred thousand times as much as in DNA.<br />
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Even more important, is the fact that the information in books, can be changed, and updated, much more rapidly. It has taken us several million years to evolve from the apes. During that time, the useful information in our DNA, has probably changed by only a few million bits. So the rate of biological evolution in humans, is about a bit a year. By contrast, there are about 50,000 new books published in the English language each year, containing of the order of a hundred billion bits of information. Of course, the great majority of this information is garbage, and no use to any form of life. But, even so, the rate at which useful information can be added is millions, if not billions, higher than with DNA.<br />
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This has meant that we have entered a new phase of evolution. At first, evolution proceeded by natural selection, from random mutations. This Darwinian phase, lasted about three and a half billion years, and produced us, beings who developed language, to exchange information. But in the last ten thousand years or so, we have been in what might be called, an external transmission phase. In this, the internal record of information, handed down to succeeding generations in DNA, has not changed significantly. But the external record, in books, and other long lasting forms of storage, has grown enormously. Some people would use the term, evolution, only for the internally transmitted genetic material, and would object to it being applied to information handed down externally. But I think that is too narrow a view. We are more than just our genes. We may be no stronger, or inherently more intelligent, than our cave man ancestors. But what distinguishes us from them, is the knowledge that we have accumulated over the last ten thousand years, and particularly, over the last three hundred. I think it is legitimate to take a broader view, and include externally transmitted information, as well as DNA, in the evolution of the human race.<br />
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The time scale for evolution, in the external transmission period, is the time scale for accumulation of information. This used to be hundreds, or even thousands, of years. But now this time scale has shrunk to about 50 years, or less. On the other hand, the brains with which we process this information have evolved only on the Darwinian time scale, of hundreds of thousands of years. This is beginning to cause problems. In the 18th century, there was said to be a man who had read every book written. But nowadays, if you read one book a day, it would take you about 15,000 years to read through the books in a national Library. By which time, many more books would have been written.<br />
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This has meant that no one person can be the master of more than a small corner of human knowledge. People have to specialise, in narrower and narrower fields. This is likely to be a major limitation in the future. We certainly can not continue, for long, with the exponential rate of growth of knowledge that we have had in the last three hundred years. An even greater limitation and danger for future generations, is that we still have the instincts, and in particular, the aggressive impulses, that we had in cave man days. Aggression, in the form of subjugating or killing other men, and taking their women and food, has had definite survival advantage, up to the present time. But now it could destroy the entire human race, and much of the rest of life on Earth. A nuclear war, is still the most immediate danger, but there are others, such as the release of a genetically engineered virus. Or the green house effect becoming unstable.<br />
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There is no time, to wait for Darwinian evolution, to make us more intelligent, and better natured. But we are now entering a new phase, of what might be called, self designed evolution, in which we will be able to change and improve our DNA. There is a project now on, to map the entire sequence of human DNA. It will cost a few billion dollars, but that is chicken feed, for a project of this importance. Once we have read the book of life, we will start writing in corrections. At first, these changes will be confined to the repair of genetic defects, like cystic fibrosis, and muscular dystrophy. These are controlled by single genes, and so are fairly easy to identify, and correct. Other qualities, such as intelligence, are probably controlled by a large number of genes. It will be much more difficult to find them, and work out the relations between them. Nevertheless, I am sure that during the next century, people will discover how to modify both intelligence, and instincts like aggression.<br />
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<img src="images/tourist2.gif" width="200" height="184" alt="" border="0" align="left" />Laws will be passed, against genetic engineering with humans. But some people won't be able to resist the temptation, to improve human characteristics, such as size of memory, resistance to disease, and length of life. Once such super humans appear, there are going to be major political problems, with the unimproved humans, who won't be able to compete. Presumably, they will die out, or become unimportant. Instead, there will be a race of self-designing beings, who are improving themselves at an ever-increasing rate.<br />
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If this race manages to redesign itself, to reduce or eliminate the risk of self-destruction, it will probably spread out, and colonise other planets and stars. However, long distance space travel, will be difficult for chemically based life forms, like DNA. The natural lifetime for such beings is short, compared to the travel time. According to the theory of relativity, nothing can travel faster than light. So the round trip to the nearest star would take at least 8 years, and to the centre of the galaxy, about a hundred thousand years. In science fiction, they overcome this difficulty, by space warps, or travel through extra dimensions. But I don't think these will ever be possible, no matter how intelligent life becomes. In the theory of relativity, if one can travel faster than light, one can also travel back in time. This would lead to problems with people going back, and changing the past. One would also expect to have seen large numbers of tourists from the future, curious to look at our quaint, old-fashioned ways.<br />
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It might be possible to use genetic engineering, to make DNA based life survive indefinitely, or at least for a hundred thousand years. But an easier way, which is almost within our capabilities already, would be to send machines. These could be designed to last long enough for interstellar travel. When they arrived at a new star, they could land on a suitable planet, and mine material to produce more machines, which could be sent on to yet more stars. These machines would be a new form of life, based on mechanical and electronic components, rather than macromolecules. They could eventually replace DNA based life, just as DNA may have replaced an earlier form of life.<br />
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This mechanical life could also be self-designing. Thus it seems that the external transmission period of evolution, will have been just a very short interlude, between the Darwinian phase, and a biological, or mechanical, self design phase. This is shown on this next diagram, which is not to scale, because there's no way one can show a period of ten thousand years, on the same scale as billions of years. How long the self-design phase will last is open to question. It may be unstable, and life may destroy itself, or get into a dead end. If it does not, it should be able to survive the death of the Sun, in about 5 billion years, by moving to planets around other stars. Most stars will have burnt out in another 15 billion years or so, and the universe will be approaching a state of complete disorder, according to the Second Law of Thermodynamics. But Freeman Dyson has shown that, despite this, life could adapt to the ever-decreasing supply of ordered energy, and therefore could, in principle, continue forever.<br />
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What are the chances that we will encounter some alien form of life, as we explore the galaxy. If the argument about the time scale for the appearance of life on Earth is correct, there ought to be many other stars, whose planets have life on them. Some of these stellar systems could have formed 5 billion years before the Earth. So why is the galaxy not crawling with self designing mechanical or biological life forms? Why hasn't the Earth been visited, and even colonised. I discount suggestions that UFO's contain beings from outer space. I think any visits by aliens, would be much more obvious, and probably also, much more unpleasant.<br />
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What is the explanation of why we have not been visited? One possibility is that the argument, about the appearance of life on Earth, is wrong. Maybe the probability of life spontaneously appearing is so low, that Earth is the only planet in the galaxy, or in the observable universe, in which it happened. Another possibility is that there was a reasonable probability of forming self reproducing systems, like cells, but that most of these forms of life did not evolve intelligence. We are used to thinking of intelligent life, as an inevitable consequence of evolution. But the Anthropic Principle should warn us to be wary of such arguments. It is more likely that evolution is a random process, with intelligence as only one of a large number of possible outcomes. It is not clear that intelligence has any long-term survival value. Bacteria, and other single cell organisms, will live on, if all other life on Earth is wiped out by our actions. <img src="images/chronol.gif" width="260" height="187" alt="" border="0" align="left" />There is support for the view that intelligence, was an unlikely development for life on Earth, from the chronology of evolution. It took a very long time, two and a half billion years, to go from single cells to multi-cell beings, which are a necessary precursor to intelligence. This is a good fraction of the total time available, before the Sun blows up. So it would be consistent with the hypothesis, that the probability for life to develop intelligence, is low. In this case, we might expect to find many other life forms in the galaxy, but we are unlikely to find intelligent life. Another way, in which life could fail to develop to an intelligent stage, would be if an asteroid or comet were to collide with the planet. We have just observed the collision of a comet, Schumacher-Levi, with Jupiter. It produced a series of enormous fireballs. It is thought the collision of a rather smaller body with the Earth, about 70 million years ago, was responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs. A few small early mammals survived, but anything as large as a human, would have almost certainly been wiped out. It is difficult to say how often such collisions occur, but a reasonable guess might be every twenty million years, on average. If this figure is correct, it would mean that intelligent life on Earth has developed only because of the lucky chance that there have been no major collisions in the last 70 million years. Other planets in the galaxy, on which life has developed, may not have had a long enough collision free period to evolve intelligent beings.<br />
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A third possibility is that there is a reasonable probability for life to form, and to evolve to intelligent beings, in the external transmission phase. But at that point, the system becomes unstable, and the intelligent life destroys itself. This would be a very pessimistic conclusion. I very much hope it isn't true. <img src="images/why.gif" width="220" height="158" alt="" border="0" align="right" />I prefer a fourth possibility: there are other forms of intelligent life out there, but that we have been overlooked. There used to be a project called SETI, the search for extra-terrestrial intelligence. It involved scanning the radio frequencies, to see if we could pick up signals from alien civilisations. I thought this project was worth supporting, though it was cancelled due to a lack of funds. But we should have been wary of answering back, until we have develop a bit further. Meeting a more advanced civilisation, at our present stage, might be a bit like the original inhabitants of America meeting Columbus. I don't think they were better off for it.<br />
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That is all I have to say. Thank you for listening.<br />
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</div>Tools For Youhttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/6651140:DiscussionEntry:86082008-07-27T03:27:06.000Z2008-07-27T03:27:06.000ZRobert Dickinsonhttps://swmm2000.com/members/doonePlace<div><embed wmode="opaque" src="http://www.poodwaddle.com/notes3" width="315" height="355" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" bgcolor="#000000" allowscriptaccess="never"></embed>
</div>SWMM 5 Linkshttps://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/6651140:DiscussionEntry:86062008-04-03T00:20:23.000Z2008-04-03T00:20:23.000ZRobert Dickinsonhttps://swmm2000.com/members/doonePlace<div>More Information about the Stormwater Management Model (SWMM) for watershed water quality, hydrology and hydraulics modelers can be found at these additional WebSites. <font size="2" face="Verdana"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWMM">Wikipedia SWMM</a> <a href="http://www.epa.gov/ednnrmrl/models/swmm/index.htm">EPA SWMM 5 Site</a> <a href="http://swmmconversion.ning.com/"><b>SWMM 3,4 to 5 Conversion Tools</b></a> <a href="http://partnerpage.google.com/swmm5.com">SWMM5.COM</a> <a href="http://groups.google.com/group/stormwatermanagementmodel">SWMM Google Group</a> <a href="http://groups.google.com/group/SWMM-Espanol">SWMM-Espanol Google Group</a> <a href="http://hhwq.blogspot.com">HHWQ</a> <a href="http://swmm5.blogspot.com">SWMM 5 Blog</a> <a href="http://swmm50.ning.com">SWMM 5.0 Ning Site</a> <a href="http://groups.google.com/group/UDFCD-support">UDFCD Computational Tools and USDCM Support</a> <a href="http://www.box.net/home">SWMM 5 Box</a> <font><img src="http://ak.webfetti.com/assets/3dani/1/35.gif" alt="Webfetti.com" border="0" /></font></b></font>
</div>Google Group, SWMM 2008.https://swmm2000.com/forum/topics/6651140:DiscussionEntry:86022008-03-28T00:53:18.000Z2008-03-28T00:53:18.000ZRobert Dickinsonhttps://swmm2000.com/members/doonePlace<div>Congratulations: you've successfully created your Google Group, SWMM 2008. Here are the essentials: * Group name: SWMM 2008 * Group home page: <a href="http://groups.google.com/group/swmm-2008">http://groups.google.com/group/swmm-2008</a> * Group email address swmm-2008@googlegroups.com And here are links to a few more Google Group-related goodies: * Change group settings: <a href="http://groups.google.com/group/swmm-2008/manage">http://groups.google.com/group/swmm-2008/manage</a> * Invite more users: <a href="http://groups.google.com/group/swmm-2008/manage_members_add">http://groups.google.com/group/swmm-2008/manage_members_add</a> If you have questions about this or any other group, please visit the Google Groups Help Center at <a href="http://groups.google.com/support">http://groups.google.com/support</a>. Enjoy your group and make us proud! The Google Groups Team
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